Lightning is a natural phenomenon, more specifically an atmospheric electrical phenomenon. It consists of electrostatic discharges occurring through the atmosphere between two electrically charged regions, either both existing within the atmosphere or one within the atmosphere and one on the ground, with these regions then becoming partially or wholly electrically neutralized. This transpires in a near-instantaneous release of energy on a scale averaging between 200 megajoules and 7 gigajoules.[1][2][3] This discharge may produce a wide range of electromagnetic radiation, from heat created by the rapid movement of electrons, to brilliant flashes of visible light in the form of black-body radiation. Lightning also causes thunder, a sound from the shock wave which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure. The most common occurrence of a lightning event is known as a thunderstorm, though they can also commonly occur in other types of energetic weather systems too. Lightning influences the global atmospheric electrical circuit, atmospheric chemistry, and is a natural ignition source of wildfires. The scientific study of lightning is called fulminology.
The most direct effects of lightning on humans occur as a result of cloud-to-ground lightning, even though intra-cloud and cloud-to-cloud are more common. Intra-cloud and cloud-to-cloud lightning indirectly affect humans through their influence on atmospheric chemistry.
There are variations of each type, such as "positive" versus "negative" CG flashes, that have different physical characteristics common to each which can be measured.
Cloud to ground (CG)
Cloud to ground seen in slow motion
Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge between a thundercloud and the ground. It is initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud, which is met by a streamer moving up from the ground.
CG is the least common, but best understood of all types of lightning. It is easier to study scientifically because it terminates on a physical object, namely the ground, and lends itself to being measured by instruments on the ground. Of the three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property, since it terminates on the ground or "strikes".
The overall discharge, termed a flash, is composed of a number of processes such as preliminary breakdown, stepped leaders, connecting leaders, return strokes, dart leaders, and subsequent return strokes.[6] The conductivity of the electrical ground, be it soil, fresh water, or salt water, may affect the lightning discharge rate and thus visible characteristics.[7]
Positive and negative lightning
Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the conventional electric current between cloud and ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred (electrons flow) downwards to ground along the lightning channel (conventionally speaking they flow from the ground up to the cloud). The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel, while also a positive charge is transferred downward to the ground (conventionally speaking this would be the opposite).
Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.[8]
A bolt from the blue lightning strike which appears to initiate from the clear, but the turbulent sky above the anvil cloud and drive a bolt of plasma through the cloud directly to the ground. They are commonly referred to as positive flashes, despite the fact that they are usually negative in polarity.
There are a number of mechanisms theorized to result in the formation of positive lightning.[9] These are mainly based on movement or intensification of charge centres in the cloud. Such changes in cloud charging may come about as a result of variations in vertical wind shear or precipitation, or dissipation of the storm. Positive flashes may also result from certain behaviour of in-cloud discharges, e.g. breaking off or branching from existing flashes.
Positive lightning strikes tend to be much more intense than their negative counterparts. An average bolt of negative lightning creates an electric current of 30,000 amperes (30kA), transferring a total 15C (coulombs) of electric charge and 1 gigajoule of energy. Large bolts of positive lightning can create up to 120kA and transfer 350C.[10] The average positive ground flash has roughly double the peak current of a typical negative flash, and can produce peak currents up to 400kA and charges of several hundred coulombs.[11][12] Furthermore, positive ground flashes with high peak currents are commonly followed by long continuing currents, a correlation not seen in negative ground flashes.[13]
As a result of their greater power, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous than negative strikes.[citation needed] Positive lightning produces both higher peak currents and longer continuing currents, making them capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited. The long distances positive lightning can propagate through clear air explains why they are known as "bolts from the blue", giving no warning to observers.
Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of upward lightning flashes from the tops of tall structures and is largely responsible for the initiation of sprites several tens of kilometers above ground level. Positive lightning tends to occur more frequently in winter storms, as with thundersnow, during intense tornadoes[14] and in the dissipation stage of a thunderstorm.[15] Huge quantities of extremely low frequency (ELF) and very low frequency (VLF) radio waves are also generated.[16]
Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar and originate from their respective charge region.[citation needed] Despite the popular misconception that flashes originating from the anvil are positive, due to them seemingly originating from the positive charge region, observations have shown that these are in fact negative flashes. They begin as IC flashes within the cloud, the negative leader then exits the cloud from the positive charge region before propagating through clear air and striking the ground some distance away.[17][18]
Cloud to cloud (CC) and intra-cloud (IC)
Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground. When it occurs between two separate clouds, it is known as cloud-to-cloud (CC) or inter-cloud lightning; when it occurs between areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud, it is known as intra-cloud (IC) lightning. IC lightning is the most frequently occurring type.[15]
IC lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called "sheet lightning". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.
Another term used for cloud–cloud or cloud–cloud–ground lightning is "Anvil Crawler", due to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature extensive rear anvil shearing.
Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, New Delhi, India.
Multiple paths of cloud-to-cloud lightning, Swifts Creek, Australia.
The processes involved in lightning formation fall into the following categories:
Large-scale atmospheric phenomena in which charge separation can occur (e.g. storm)
Microscopic physical processes that result in charge separation
Large-scale separation of charge and establishment of an electric field
Discharge through a lightning channel
Atmospheric phenomena in which lightning occurs
Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses,[19] resulting in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarizing the atmosphere.[20] The disturbances result in storms, and when those storms also result in lightning and thunder, they are called a thunderstorm.
Intense forest fires, such as those seen in the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, can create their own weather systems that can produce lightning (also called Fire Lightning) and other weather phenomena.[26] Intense heat from a fire causes air to rapidly rise within the smoke plume, causing the formation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds. Cooler air is drawn in by this turbulent, rising air, helping to cool the plume. The rising plume is further cooled by the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitude, allowing the moisture in it to condense into cloud. Pyrocumulonimbus clouds form in an unstable atmosphere. These weather systems can produce dry lightning, fire tornadoes, intense winds, and dirty hail.[26]
Airplane contrails have also been observed to influence lightning to a small degree. The water vapor-dense contrails of airplanes may provide a lower resistance pathway through the atmosphere having some influence upon the establishment of an ionic pathway for a lightning flash to follow.[27]
Rocket exhaust plumes provided a pathway for lightning when it was witnessed striking the Apollo 12 rocket shortly after takeoff.
Thermonuclear explosions, by providing extra material for electrical conduction and a very turbulent localized atmosphere, have been seen triggering lightning flashes within the mushroom cloud. In addition, intense gamma radiation from large nuclear explosions may develop intensely charged regions in the surrounding air through Compton scattering. The intensely charged space charge regions create multiple clear-air lightning discharges shortly after the device detonates.[28]
Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, which may create pathways for lightning channels.[29]
Charge separation
Charge separation in thunderstorms
(Figure 1) The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where the air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from −15 to −25°C (5 to −13°F).(Figure 2) When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged.The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.
The details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm charge separation, also known as electrification. Electrification can be by the triboelectric effect leading to electron or ion transfer between colliding bodies. Uncharged, colliding water-drops can become charged because of charge transfer between them (as aqueous ions) in an electric field as would exist in a thunderstorm.[30] The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from −15 to −25°C (5 to −13°F); see Figure 1. In that area, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super-cooled cloud droplets (small water droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and graupel (soft hail). The updraft carries the super-cooled cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward.
At the same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be suspended in the rising air.[31]
The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur. When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged; see Figure 2. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm.[31]
The result is that the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.[31]
The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from the thunderstorm cloud base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts). In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.[31]
Charge separation in different phases of water
The induced separation of charge in pure liquid water has been known since the 1840s as has the electrification of pure liquid water by the triboelectric effect.[32]William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) demonstrated that charge separation in water occurs in the usual electric fields at the Earth's surface and developed a continuous electric field measuring device using that knowledge.[33] The physical separation of charge into different regions using liquid water was demonstrated by Kelvin with the Kelvin water dropper. The most likely charge-carrying species were considered to be the aqueous hydrogen ion and the aqueous hydroxide ion.[34] An electron is not stable in liquid water concerning a hydroxide ion plus dissolved hydrogen for the time scales involved in thunderstorms.[35]
The electrical charging of solid water ice has also been considered. The charged species were again considered to be the hydrogen ion and the hydroxide ion.[36][37]
The charge carrier in lightning is mainly electrons in a plasma.[38] The process of going from charge as ions (positive hydrogen ion and negative hydroxide ion) associated with liquid water or solid water to charge as electrons associated with lightning must involve some form of electro-chemistry, that is, the oxidation and/or the reduction of chemical species.[39] As hydroxide functions as a base and carbon dioxide is an acidic gas, it is possible that charged water clouds in which the negative charge is in the form of the aqueous hydroxide ion, interact with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form aqueous carbonate ions and aqueous hydrogen carbonate ions.
In order for an electrostatic discharge to occur, two preconditions are necessary: first, a sufficiently high potential difference between two regions of space must exist, and second, a high-resistance medium must obstruct the free, unimpeded equalization of the opposite charges. The atmosphere provides the electrical insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization between charged regions of opposite polarity. Meanwhile, a thunderstorm can provide the charge separation and aggregation in certain regions of the cloud.[40]
When the local electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of damp air (about 3 MV/m), electrical discharge results in a strike, often followed by commensurate discharges branching from the same path. Mechanisms that cause the charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation.[41][42] A 2016 study confirmed dielectric breakdown is involved.[43] Lightning may be caused by the circulation of warm moisture-filled air through electric fields.[44] Ice or water particles then accumulate charge as in a Van de Graaff generator.[45]
As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge, but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be roughly represented as a bell curve.
The oppositely charged regions create an electric field within the air between them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge on the base of the thundercloud – the greater the accumulated charge, the higher the electrical field.
Electrical discharge as flashes and strikes
The best-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given there are no "physical" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very low probability of lightning striking the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of high CG frequency.
Lightning leaders
A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red
In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of ionized air, called a "leader", is initiated between oppositely-charged regions in a thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through, or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region, also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree-like pattern.[46] In addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in a process called "stepping". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be readily observed in slow-motion videos of lightning flashes.
It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-charged ground.
The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and negative towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader "pools" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.
About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately 45m (148ft) in length.[47] The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The electric current needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.
Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself.[48] Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by cosmic rays and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called runaway breakdown. As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals.[49]Percolation theory, especially for the case of biased percolation,[50][clarification needed] describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model[51] has recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.[52][53]
Upward streamers
Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover
When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.[54][55][56]
As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge will exceed a threshold and form upward streamers.
Attachment
Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.[57]
High-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in Toulouse, France.
Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.[58] This is the "return stroke" and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.
A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,[citation needed] they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.[59] Electricity takes every path available to it.[60] Such step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000km/s (one-third of the speed of light).[61] A typical cloud-to-ground lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically conducting plasma channel through the air in excess of 5km (3.1mi) tall, from within the cloud to the ground's surface.[62]
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly superheats the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed 27,800°C (50,000°F),[63] causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful shock wave which is heard as thunder.
Discharge – Re-strike
High-speed videos (examined frame-by-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30.[64]
Each re-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re-strikes often cause a noticeable "strobe light" effect.[65]
To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called recoil leaders, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke-like process occurs and a dart leader travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.[66]
Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[67]
Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.[66]
Discharge – Transient currents during flash
The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground-based structures. Rapidly changing (alternating) currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the skin effect, unlike direct currents, which "flow-through" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle surface area in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total cross-sectional area.
The rapidly changing currents also create electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.[68] This is the surge that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate electronics, electrical appliances, or electric motors. Devices known as surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS) attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached earthing ground, thereby protecting the equipment from damage.
Data obtained from April 1995 to February 2003 from NASA's Optical Transient Detector depicting space-based sensors revealing the uneven distribution of worldwide lightning strikesA 768km (477mi) megaflash from Texas to Louisiana, in the United States.
Global monitoring indicates that lightning on Earth occurs at an average frequency of approximately 44(±5) times per second, equating to nearly 1.4 billion flashes per year.[70] Median duration is 0.52 seconds[71] made up from a number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 60 to 70 microseconds.[72] Occurrences are distributed unevenly across the planet with about 70% being over land in the tropics[73] where atmospheric convection is the greatest.
Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity, and proximity to warm and cold bodies of water. To a certain degree the proportions of intra-cloud, cloud-to-cloud, and cloud-to-ground lightning may also vary by season in middle latitudes.
A lightning strike captured at 240 FPS during a severe thunderstorm in Mango Hill, Australia.
This[clarification needed] occurs from both the mixture of warmer and colder air masses, as well as differences in moisture concentrations, and it generally happens at the boundaries between them. The flow of warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the Gulf Stream, partially explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the Southeast United States. Because large bodies of water lack the topographic variation that would result in atmospheric mixing, lightning is notably less frequent over the world's oceans than over land. The North and South Poles are limited in their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least lightning.[clarification needed]
In general, CG lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation where freezing occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process. During wind-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water (called graupel) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to accumulate a positive space charge while the lower level accumulates a negative space charge.
Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating properties of air, and this increases proportionally to the distance between the cloud and the ground, the proportion of CG strikes (versus CC or IC discharges) becomes greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics, where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60° North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.[74][75]
Multiple lightning strikes in Poland in August 2020
Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically 1–2km (0.62–1.24mi) above the ground and tops up to 15km (9.3mi) in height.
The place on Earth where lightning occurs most often is over Lake Maracaibo, wherein the Catatumbo lightning phenomenon produces 250 bolts of lightning a day.[76] This activity occurs on average, 297 days a year.[77] The second most lightning density is near the village of Kifuka in the mountains of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,[78] where the elevation is around 975m (3,200ft). On average, this region receives 158 lightning strikes per square kilometre per year (410/sqmi/yr).[79] Other lightning hotspots include Singapore[80] and Lightning Alley in Central Florida.[81][82]
According to the World Meteorological Organization, on April 29, 2020, a bolt 768km (477.2mi) long was observed in the southern U.S.—sixty km (37mi) longer than the previous distance record (southern Brazil, October 31, 2018).[83] A single flash in Uruguay and northern Argentina on June 18, 2020, lasted for 17.1 seconds—0.37 seconds longer than the previous record (March 4, 2019, also in northern Argentina).[83]
Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one-dimensional speeds of 10 flashes observed were between 1.0×105 and 1.4×106 m/s, with an average of 4.4×105 m/s.[84]
A lightning strike can unleash a variety of effects, some temporary, including very brief emission of light, sound and electromagnetic radiation, and some long-lasting, such as death, damage, and atmospheric and environmental changes.
Injury, damage and destruction
The immense amount of energy transferred in a lightning strike can have potentially devastating effect in a multitude of areas.
To nature
Bark blown off of a Birch tree via explosive steam pressure between the trunk and bark from a lightning strikeA strike mark on the trunk of a black walnut tree in Oklahoma
Objects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. Consequently:
The heat created by lightning currents travelling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a steam explosion that rips off bark or even bursts the trunk.
Similarly water in a fractured rock may be rapidly heated such that it splits further apart.[85][86]
A struck tree may catch fire, or a forest fire may be started. See also fire lightning below.
As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil surrounding the plasma channel may melt, forming tubular structures called fulgurites.
To man-made structures and their contents
Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks unimpeded paths to the ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to the ground, a lightning protection system, usually incorporating at least one lightning rod, can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage. Surge protection devices (SPDs) can additionally or alternatively be used to help protect electrical installations from lightning induced electrical surges that risk damaging or destroying electrical equipment or starting a fire. Electrical fires obviously threaten not only structures but all assets, personal possessions, and living beings (people, pets and livestock) within. What, if any, protection system a building or structure requires is determined through a risk assessment. Threats to structures come not only from direct strikes to the structure itself, but also from direct or indirect strikes to connected electrically conductive services (electrical power lines; communication lines; water/gas pipes), or even to the surrounding area from which a surge may reach a service connection as it spreads out into the ground.
To aircraft
Aircraft are highly susceptible to being struck due to their metallic fuselages, but lightning strikes are generally not dangerous to them.[87] Due to the conductive properties of aluminium alloy, the fuselage acts as a Faraday cage. Present day aircraft are built to be safe from a lightning strike and passengers will generally not even know that it has happened. However, there have been suspicions that lightning strikes can ignite fuel vapor and cause explosion,[citation needed] and nearby lightning can momentarily blind the pilot and cause permanent errors in magnetic compasses.[88]
To living beings
Although 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive,[89] humans and other animals struck by lightning may suffer severe injury due to internal organ and nervous system damage.
Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.[90] Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.[91]
Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 160km (100 miles) whereas the thunder travels about 32km (20 miles). Anecdotally, there are many examples of people describing a 'storm directly overhead' or 'all-around' and yet 'no thunder'. Since thunderclouds can be up to 20km (12 miles) high,[92] lightning occurring high up in the cloud may appear close but is actually too far away to produce noticeable thunder.
The distance approximation trick
Light travels at about 300,000,000m/s (980,000,000ft/s), while sound only travels through air at about 343m/s (1,130ft/s). An observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder by one second would be approximately 343m (0.213 miles) away; thus a delay of three seconds would indicate a distance of about 1km (0.62 miles); while a flash preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of roughly 1 mile (1.6km). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse, possibly accompanied by the smell of ozone (O3).
Electromagnetic radiation and interference
Electromagnetic waves are emitted in a variety of wavelengths, most obviously that of visible light – the big bright flash!
Lightning discharges generate radio-frequency electromagnetic waves which can be received thousands of kilometers from their source. The discharge by itself is relatively simple short-lived dipole source that creates a single electromagnetic pulse with a duration of about 1 ms and a wide spectral density. In the absence in the nearby environment of materials with magnetic or electrical interaction properties, at a large distances in a far field zone, the electromagnetic wave will be proportional to the second derivation of the discharge current.[93] This is what happens with high-altitude discharges or discharges over areas of a dry land. In other cases, the surrounding environment will change the shape of the source signal by absorbing some of its spectrum and converting it into a heat or re-transmitting it back as modified electromagnetic waves.[94]
The production of X-rays by a bolt of lightning was predicted as early as 1925 by C.T.R. Wilson,[95] but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,[96][97][98] when researchers at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology detected X-ray emissions from an induced lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the same year University of Florida and Florida Tech researchers used an array of electric field and X-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural lightning makes X-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The cause of the X-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is too low to account for the X-rays observed.[99][100]
A number of observations by space-based telescopes have revealed even higher energy gamma ray emissions, the so-called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs). These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent discovery of the clear signatures of antimatter produced in lightning.[101] Recent research has shown that secondary species, produced by these TGFs, such as electrons, positrons, neutrons or protons, can gain energies of up to several tens of MeV.[102][103]
Environmental changes
More permanent or longer-lasting environmental changes include the following.
Ozone and nitrogen oxides (atmospheric)
The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Each lightning flash in temperate and sub-tropical areas produces 7kg of NOx on average.[104] In the troposphere the effect of lightning can increase NOx by 90% and ozone by 30%.[105]
Ground fertilisation
Lightning serves an important role in the nitrogen cycle by oxidizing diatomic nitrogen in the air into nitrates which are deposited by rain and can fertilize the growth of plants and other organisms.[106][107]
Induced permanent magnetism
The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see electromagnetism). The intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field. Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightning-induced remanent magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often horizontally near the surface[108][109] but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or ground water offers a less resistive path.[110] One theory suggests that lodestones, natural magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.[111]
Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground,[112][113] and analysis of magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization[114] and provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge.[115]
Lightning has been observed within the atmospheres of planets other than Earth, such as Jupiter, Saturn,[117] and probably Uranus and Neptune.[117] Lightning on Jupiter is far more energetic than on Earth, despite seeming to be generated via the same mechanism. Recently, a new type of lightning was detected on Jupiter, thought to originate from "mushballs" including ammonia.[118] On Saturn lightning, initially referred to as "Saturn Electrostatic Discharge", was discovered by the Voyager 1 mission.[117]
Lightning on Venus has been a controversial subject after decades of study. During the Soviet Venera and U.S. Pioneer missions of the 1970s and 1980s, signals suggesting lightning may be present in the upper atmosphere were detected.[119] The short Cassini–Huygens mission fly-by of Venus in 1999 detected no signs of lightning, but radio pulses recorded by the spacecraft Venus Express (which began orbiting Venus in April 2006) may originate from lightning on Venus.[120]
The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunderstorm was the lightning bell. Benjamin Franklin installed one such device in his house.[121][122] The detector was based on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by Andrew Gordon in 1742.
Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radio-frequency pulses. The times at which a pulse from a given lightning discharge arrives at several receivers can be used to locate the source of the discharge with a precision on the order of metres. The United States federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S.[123][124]
In addition, Blitzortung (a private global detection system that consists of over 500 detection stations owned and operated by hobbyists/volunteers) provides near real-time lightning maps at .
The Earth-ionosphere waveguide traps electromagnetic VLF- and ELF waves. Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide. The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their group velocity depends on frequency. The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction-finding methods, this allows locating lightning strikes up to distances of 10,000km from their origin. Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth-ionospheric waveguide, the Schumann resonances at about 7.5Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.[125]
In addition to ground-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have been constructed to observe lightning distribution. These include the Optical Transient Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard TRMM launched on November 28, 1997.[126][127][128]
Starting in 2016, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration launched Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES-R) weather satellites outfitted with Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) instruments which are near-infrared optical transient detectors that can detect the momentary changes in an optical scene, indicating the presence of lightning.[129][130] The lightning detection data can be converted into a real-time map of lightning activity across the Western Hemisphere; this mapping technique has been implemented by the United States National Weather Service.[131]
In 2022 EUMETSAT plan to launch the Lightning Imager (MTG-I LI) on board Meteosat Third Generation. This will complement NOAA's GLM. MTG-I LI will cover Europe and Africa and will include products on events, groups and flashes.[132]
Artificial triggering
Rocket-triggered lightning can be "triggered" by launching specially designed rockets trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.[133]
The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.
Laser-triggered
Since the 1970s,[134] researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.[135][136][137][138][139]
In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new terawatt laser which provoked lightning. Scientists fired ultra-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized molecules known as filaments. Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike. Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered. According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand.[140] Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical activity in the thundercloud where it was aimed—in effect they generated small local discharges located at the position of the plasma channels.[141]
Impact of climate change and air pollution
Due to the low resolution of global climate models, accurately representing lightning in these climate models is difficult, largely due to their inability to simulate the convection and cloud ice fundamental to lightning formation. Research from the Future Climate for Africa programme demonstrates that using a convection-permitting model over Africa can more accurately capture convective thunderstorms and the distribution of ice particles. This research indicates climate change may increase the total amount of lightning only slightly: the total number of lightning days per year decreases, while more cloud ice and stronger convection leads to more lightning strikes occurring on days when lightning does occur.[142]
A study from the University of Washington looked at lightning activity in the Arctic from 2010 to 2020. The ratio of Arctic summertime strokes was compared to total global strokes and was observed to be increasing with time, indicating that the region is becoming more influenced by lightning. The fraction of strokes above 65 degrees north was found to be increasing linearly with the NOAA global temperature anomaly and grew by a factor of 3 as the anomaly increased from 0.65 to 0.95°C [143]
There is growing evidence that lightning activity is increased by particulate emissions (a form of air pollution).[144][145][146] However, lightning may also improve air quality and clean greenhouse gases such as methane from the atmosphere, while creating nitrogen oxide and ozone at the same time.[147] Lightning is also the major cause of wildfire,[148] and wildfire can contribute to climate change as well.[149] More studies are warranted to clarify their relationship.
In culture and religion
Humans have deified lightning for millennia. Idiomatic expressions derived from lightning, such as the English expression "bolt from the blue", are common across languages. At all times people have been fascinated by the sight and difference of lightning.
The first known photograph of lightning is from 1847, by Thomas Martin Easterly.[150] The first surviving photograph is from 1882, by William Nicholson Jennings,[151] a photographer who spent half his life capturing pictures of lightning and proving its diversity.
Although sometimes used figuratively, the idea that lightning never strikes the same place twice is a common myth. In fact, lightning can, and often does, strike the same place more than once. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City on average 23 times per year.[157][158][159]
In French and Italian, the expression for "Love at first sight" is coup de foudre and colpo di fulmine, respectively, which literally translated means "lightning strike". Some European languages have a separate word for lightning which strikes the ground (as opposed to lightning in general); often it is a cognate of the English word "rays". The name of Australia's most celebrated thoroughbred horse, Phar Lap, derives from the shared Zhuang and Thai word for lightning.[160]
Political and military culture
Two lightning bolts pictured in the former coat of arms of the Yli-Ii municipality
The bolt of lightning in heraldry is called a thunderbolt and is shown as a zigzag with non-pointed ends. This symbol usually represents power and speed.
Vela satellites – satellites which could record lightning superbolts
Related Research Articles
Ball lightning is a rare and unexplained phenomenon described as luminescent, spherical objects that vary from pea-sized to several meters in diameter. Though usually associated with thunderstorms, the observed phenomenon is reported to last considerably longer than the split-second flash of a lightning bolt, and is a phenomenon distinct from St. Elmo's fire and will-o'-the-wisp.
A terrestrial gamma-ray flash (TGF), also known as dark lightning, is a burst of gamma rays produced in Earth's atmosphere. TGFs have been recorded to last 0.2 to 3.5 milliseconds, and have energies of up to 20 million electronvolts. It is speculated that TGFs are caused by intense electric fields produced above or inside thunderstorms. Scientists have also detected energetic positrons and electrons produced by terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.
An electrolaser is a type of electroshock weapon that is also a directed-energy weapon. It uses lasers to form an electrically conductive laser-induced plasma channel (LIPC). A fraction of a second later, a powerful electric current is sent down this plasma channel and delivered to the target, thus functioning overall as a large-scale, high energy, long-distance version of the Taser electroshock gun.
Atmospheric electricity describes the electrical charges in the Earth's atmosphere. The movement of charge between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and the ionosphere is known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit. Atmospheric electricity is an interdisciplinary topic with a long history, involving concepts from electrostatics, atmospheric physics, meteorology and Earth science.
Narrow bipolar pulses are high-energy, high-altitude, intra-cloud electrical discharges associated with thunderstorms. NBP are similar to other forms of lightning events such as return strokes and dart leaders, but produce an optical emission of at least an order of magnitude smaller. They typically occur in the 10–20 km altitude range and can emit a power on the order of a few hundred gigawatts. They produce far-field asymmetric bipolar electric field change signatures.
A lightning strike or lightning bolt is a lightning event in which an electric discharge takes place between the atmosphere and the ground. Most originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground, called cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning. A less common type of strike, ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning, is upward-propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaching into the clouds. About 25% of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth-bound objects. Most are intracloud (IC) lightning and cloud-to-cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in the atmosphere. Lightning strikes the average commercial aircraft at least once a year, but modern engineering and design means this is rarely a problem. The movement of aircraft through clouds can even cause lightning strikes.
An electric spark is an abrupt electrical discharge that occurs when a sufficiently high electric field creates an ionized, electrically conductive channel through a normally-insulating medium, often air or other gases or gas mixtures. Michael Faraday described this phenomenon as "the beautiful flash of light attending the discharge of common electricity".
A lightning detector is a device that detects lightning produced by thunderstorms. There are three primary types of detectors: ground-based systems using multiple antennas, mobile systems using a direction and a sense antenna in the same location, and space-based systems. The first such device was invented in 1894 by Alexander Stepanovich Popov. It was also the first radio receiver in the world.
A global atmospheric electrical circuit is the continuous movement of atmospheric charge carriers, such as ions, between an upper conductive layer and surface. The global circuit concept is closely related to atmospheric electricity, but not all atmospheres necessarily have a global electric circuit. The basic concept of a global circuit is that through the balance of thunderstorms and fair weather, the atmosphere is subject to a continual and substantial electrical current.
Upper-atmospheric lightning and ionospheric lightning are terms sometimes used by researchers to refer to a family of short-lived electrical-breakdown phenomena that occur well above the altitudes of normal lightning and storm clouds. Upper-atmospheric lightning is believed to be electrically induced forms of luminous plasma. The preferred usage is transient luminous event (TLE), because the various types of electrical-discharge phenomena in the upper atmosphere lack several characteristics of the more familiar tropospheric lightning.
A radio atmospheric signal or sferic is a broadband electromagnetic impulse that occurs as a result of natural atmospheric lightning discharges. Sferics may propagate from their lightning source without major attenuation in the Earth–ionosphere waveguide, and can be received thousands of kilometres from their source. On a time-domain plot, a sferic may appear as a single high-amplitude spike in the time-domain data. On a spectrogram, a sferic appears as a vertical stripe that may extend from a few kHz to several tens of kHz, depending on atmospheric conditions.
Sprites or red sprites are large-scale electric discharges that occur in the mesosphere, high above thunderstorm clouds, or cumulonimbus, giving rise to a varied range of visual shapes flickering in the night sky. They are usually triggered by the discharges of positive lightning between an underlying thundercloud and the ground.
A lightning rod or lightning conductor is a metal rod mounted on a structure and intended to protect the structure from a lightning strike. If lightning hits the structure, it is most likely to strike the rod and be conducted to ground through a wire, rather than passing through the structure, where it could start a fire or even cause electrocution. Lightning rods are also called finials, air terminals, or strike termination devices.
Joseph R. Dwyer is an American physicist known for his lightning research. He is a professor of physics at the University of New Hampshire. Dwyer received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Chicago in 1994 and worked on cosmic-ray physics and gamma-ray astronomy as a research scientist at Columbia University and the University of Maryland before joining the faculty at the Florida Institute of Technology in 2000. After moving to Melbourne, Florida, Dwyer became interested in lightning physics and his research now focuses on high-energy radiation production from thunderstorms and lightning. In 2002, Dwyer and collaborators discovered that rocket-triggered lightning produced large quantities of x-rays, allowing for first the time detailed studies of an atmospheric phenomenon known as runaway breakdown. In 2014, Dwyer left the Florida Institute of Technology and joined the University of New Hampshire.
Paleolightning refers to the remnants of ancient lightning activity studied in fields such as historical geology, geoarchaeology, and fulminology. Paleolightning provides tangible evidence for the study of lightning activity in Earth's past and the roles lightning may have played in Earth's history. Some studies have speculated that lightning activity played a crucial role in the development of not only Earth's early atmosphere but also early life. Lightning, a non-biological process, has been found to produce biologically useful material through the oxidation and reduction of inorganic matter. Research on the impact of lightning on Earth's atmosphere continues today, especially with regard to feedback mechanisms of lightning-produced nitrate compounds on atmospheric composition and global average temperatures.
Since the late 1980s, there have been several attempts to investigate the possibility of harvesting lightning energy. A single bolt of lightning carries a relatively large amount of energy. However, this energy is concentrated in a small location and is passed during an extremely short period of time (microseconds); therefore, extremely high electrical power is involved. It has been proposed that the energy contained in lightning be used to generate hydrogen from water, to harness the energy from rapid heating of water due to lightning, or to use a group of lightning arresters to harness a strike, either directly or by converting it to heat or mechanical energy, or to use inductors spaced far enough away so that a safe fraction of the energy might be captured.
In electromagnetism, a streamer discharge, also known as filamentary discharge, is a type of transient electric discharge which forms at the surface of a conductive electrode carrying a high voltage in an insulating medium such as air. Streamers are luminous writhing branching sparks, plasma channels composed of ionized air molecules, which repeatedly strike out from the electrode into the air.
The Thor experiment aims to investigate electrical activity from thunderstorms and convection related to water vapour transport. The experiment is named as 'Thor' after the god of thunder, lightning and storms in Nordic mythology. The experiment is conducted by European Space Agency with a thundercloud imaging system 400 km above Earth.
ALDIS is a sensor network in Austria for the detection and localization of lightning discharge occurring during thunderstorms. In addition to the location of the strike point, the associated peak current is also estimated. ALDIS is a member of the pan-European lightning detection project EUCLID.
↑ Lu, Gaopeng; Cummer, Steven A; Blakeslee, Richard J; Weiss, Stephanie; Beasley, William H (2012). "Lightning morphology and impulse charge moment change of high peak current negative strokes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 117 (D4): n/a. Bibcode:2012JGRD..117.4212L. CiteSeerX10.1.1.308.9842. doi:10.1029/2011JD016890.
↑ Krehbiel, Paul R; Riousset, Jeremy A; Pasko, Victor P; Thomas, Ronald J; Rison, William; Stanley, Mark A; Edens, Harald E (2008). "Upward electrical discharges fromthunderstorms". Nature Geoscience. 1 (4): 233. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..233K. doi:10.1038/ngeo162. S2CID8753629.
↑ Rinnert, K. (1995). "9: Lighting Within Planetary Atmospheres". In Hans Volland (ed.). Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics. CRC Press. p.204. ISBN978-0-8493-8647-3. The requirements for the production of lightning within an atmosphere are the following: (1) a sufficient abundance of appropriate material for electrification, (2) the operation of a microscale electrification process to produce classes of particles with different signs of charge and (3) a mechanism to separate and to accumulate particles according to their charge.
↑ Colvin, J. D.; Mitchell, C. K.; Greig, J. R.; Murphy, D. P.; Pechacek, R. E.; Raleigh, M. (1987). "An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE". Journal of Geophysical Research. 92 (D5): 5696–5712. Bibcode:1987JGR....92.5696C. doi:10.1029/JD092iD05p05696.
↑ Jennings, S. G.; Latham, J. (1972). "The charging of water drops falling and colliding in an electric field". Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie A. 21 (2–3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 299–306. Bibcode:1972AMGBA..21..299J. doi:10.1007/bf02247978. S2CID118661076.
↑ Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P. and Ross, A. B. "Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (OH/O in aqueous solution." J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 17, 513–886 (1988).
↑ Dash, J G; Wettlaufer, J S (January 1, 2003). "The surface physics of ice in thunderstorms". Canadian Journal of Physics. 81 (1–2): 201–207. Bibcode:2003CaJPh..81..201D. doi:10.1139/P03-011.
↑ Witzke, Megan; Rumbach, Paul; Go, David B; Sankaran, R Mohan (November 7, 2012). "Evidence for the electrolysis of water by atmospheric-pressure plasmas formed at the surface of aqueous solutions". Journal of Physics D. 45 (44): 442001. Bibcode:2012JPhD...45R2001W. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/45/44/442001. S2CID98547405.
↑ Fink, Micah. "How Lightning Forms". PBS.org. Public Broadcasting System. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
↑ National Weather Service (2007). "Lightning Safety". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on October 7, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
↑ Petersen, Danyal; Bailey, Matthew; Beasley, William H.; Hallett, John (2008). "A brief review of the problem of lightning initiation and a hypothesis of initial lightning leader formation". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (D17): D17205. Bibcode:2008JGRD..11317205P. doi:10.1029/2007JD009036.
↑ Griffiths, R. F.; Phelps, C. T. (1976). "A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development". Journal of Geophysical Research. 81 (21): 3671–3676. Bibcode:1976JGR....81.3671G. doi:10.1029/JC081i021p03671.
↑ Kasemir, H. W. (1950) "Qualitative Übersicht über Potential-, Feld- und Ladungsverhaltnisse Bei einer Blitzentladung in der Gewitterwolke" (Qualitative survey of the potential, field and charge conditions during a lightning discharge in the thunderstorm cloud) in Das Gewitter (The Thunderstorm), H. Israel, ed., Leipzig, Germany: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
↑ Randall Cerveny; etal. (WMO panel) (February 1, 2022), "New WMO Certified Megaflash Lightning Extremes for Flash Distance (768 km) and Duration (17.01 seconds) Recorded from Space", Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0254.1, hdl:2117/369605, S2CID246358397
↑ Pierce, Kevin (2000). "Summer Lightning Ahead". Florida Environment.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
↑ Thomson, E. M.; Uman, M. A.; Beasley, W. H. (January 1985). "Speed and current for lightning stepped leaders near ground as determined from electric field records". Journal of Geophysical Research. 90 (D5): 8136. Bibcode:1985JGR....90.8136T. doi:10.1029/JD090iD05p08136.
↑ Bond, D.W.; Steiger, S.; Zhang, R.; Tie, X.; Orville, R.E. (2002). "The importance of NOx production by lightning in the tropics". Atmospheric Environment. 36 (9): 1509–1519. Bibcode:2002AtmEn..36.1509B. doi:10.1016/s1352-2310(01)00553-2.
↑ Pickering, K.E., Bucsela, E., Allen, D, Cummings, K., Li, Y., MacGorman, D., Bruning, E. 2014. Estimates of Lightning NOx Production Per Flash from OMI NO2 and Lightning Observations. XV International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 15–20, June 2014.
↑ Bevan B. (1995). "Magnetic Surveys and Lightning". Near Surface Views (newsletter of the Near Surface Geophysics section of the Society of Exploration Geophysics). October 1995, pp. 7–8.
↑ "Lightning Detection Systems". Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved July 27, 2007. NOAA page on how the U.S. national lightning detection system operates
↑ Kridler, Chris (July 25, 2002). "Triggered lightning video". requires QuickTime. Chris Kridler's Sky Diary. Archived from the original(video) on September 15, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
Koopman, David W. & Wilkerson, T. D. (1971). "Channeling of an Ionizing Electrical Streamer by a Laser Beam". Journal of Applied Physics. 42 (5): 1883–1886. Bibcode:1971JAP....42.1883K. doi:10.1063/1.1660462.
Saum, K. A. & Koopman, David W. (November 1972). "Discharges Guided by Laser-Induced Rarefaction Channels". Physics of Fluids. 15 (11): 2077–2079. Bibcode:1972PhFl...15.2077S. doi:10.1063/1.1693833.
Schubert, C. W. (1977). "The laser lightning rod: A feasibility study". Technical Report AFFDL-TR-78-60, ADA063847, [U.S.] Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB [Air Force Base] Ohio. Archived from the original on December 24, 2008. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
↑ Rambo, P.; Biegert, J.; Kubecek, V.; Schwarz, J.; Bernstein, A.; Diels, J.-C.; Bernstein, R. & Stahlkopf, K. (1999). "Laboratory tests of laser-induced lightning discharge". Journal of Optical Technology. 66 (3): 194–198. Bibcode:1999JOptT..66..194R. doi:10.1364/JOT.66.000194.
↑ Ackermann, R.; Stelmaszczyk, K.; Rohwetter, P.; MéJean, G.; Salmon, E.; Yu, J.; Kasparian, J.; MéChain, G.; Bergmann, V.; Schaper, S.; Weise, B.; Kumm, T.; Rethmeier, K.; Kalkner, W.; WöSte, L.; Wolf, J. P. (2004). "Triggering and guiding of megavolt discharges by laser-induced filaments under rain conditions". Applied Physics Letters. 85 (23): 5781. Bibcode:2004ApPhL..85.5781A. doi:10.1063/1.1829165.
↑ Wang, D.; Ushio, T.; Kawasaki, Z. -I.; Matsuura, K.; Shimada, Y.; Uchida, S.; Yamanaka, C.; Izawa, Y.; Sonoi, Y.; Simokura, N. (1995). "A possible way to trigger lightning using a laser". Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics. 57 (5): 459. Bibcode:1995JATP...57..459W. doi:10.1016/0021-9169(94)00073-W.
Field, P. R.; W. H. Hand; G. Cappelluti; etal. (November 2010). "Hail Threat Standardisation"(PDF). European Aviation Safety Agency. Research Project EASA.2008/5. Archived from the original(PDF) on December 7, 2013.
"Effects of Lightning". The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction. Vol.12, no.323. Columbia College, New York. July 19, 1828 – via Project Gutenberg. Early lightning research.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
Weatherportal 
