Vasconic substrate hypothesis

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The Vasconic substrate hypothesis is a proposal that several Western European languages contain remnants of an old language family of Vasconic languages, of which Basque is the only surviving member. The proposal was made by the German linguist Theo Vennemann, but has been rejected by other linguists.

Contents

According to Vennemann, Vasconic languages were once widespread on the European continent before they were mostly replaced by Indo-European languages. Relics of these languages include toponyms across Central and Western Europe.

Basis of the hypothesis

Theo Vennemann based his hypothesis on the works of Hans Krahe, who postulated an Old European substrate as the origin of the European hydronymy (Old European hydronymy). He classified the substratum language as Indo-European. [1] [2]

Vennemann rejected the classification. He gives the following reasons:

The hypothesis and its evidence

Proposed area of Vasconic substratum Proposed area of Vasconic languages.png
Proposed area of Vasconic substratum

Vennemann developed his ideas in a series of papers which were collected in a book called Europa Vasconica–Europa Semitica. [4]

He accepts Krahe's theory that there was a uniform Old European language, which is the origin of the Old European hydronymy, but proposes that it is of Vasconic origin. Vasconic is a language family proposed by Vennemann encompassing Basque (its only extant member), Aquitanian, Ligurian, and possibly Iberian and Proto-Sardinian. [5]

Vennemann proposes that this uniform Vasconic substrate must come from a linguistically uniform population, which can only exist within a small area. He therefore proposes that during the last Ice Age, the Vasconic people lived in the modern region of Aquitania. As the glaciers retreated, the Vasconics began moving to the north and south, settling most of Western and Central Europe, spreading their language. They gave names to the rivers and places. This toponymy mostly persisted after the Vasconic language was replaced by Indo-European languages in most of their area, of which the present Basque area in northern Spain and southern France is postulated to be a relic. [2] [6] [7]

Evidence cited by Vennemann

In support of this argument, Vennemann cites, inter alia:

Vigesimal numerical systems

Elements of vigesimal ("base-20") counting and number systems, which Vennemann regards as a trait of Vasconic languages, [2] exist in Celtic, Danish and French. [3] : 530–539  [11] : 461 

Genetics

Evidence from genetics and blood types shows that the modern Basque people share physical characteristics with old populations[ vague ] throughout Western and Central Europe, especially in likely refugia areas, such as mountain ranges. [12] [7]

Reception

General criticism

The hypothesis has been largely rejected by historical linguists. [4] [13] Vennemann's theories on "Vasconic" toponymy and hydronymy were opposed by linguists such as P. R. Kitson (1996), [14] and Baldi & Richard (2006), who pointed out that most linguists see unusual European hydronyms as more likely to have Indo-European roots of some kind, [4] and the Indo-European linguist Michael Meier-Brügger. [15]

German linguist Dieter H. Steinbauer argued that it is difficult to argue on the basis of Basque because:

Steinbauer also criticized Vennemann for

The Bascologist Joseba Lakarra rejects Vennemann's Vasconic etymologies, as he considers them to be incompatible with the current state of research on historical phonology and morphology of Basque. [17] Larry Trask concludes that Vennemann found an agglutinating language unrelated to Basque, which could e.g. be Indo-European. [18]

Harald Bichlmeier points out that Vennemann compares the etymological roots of the toponymy with modern Basque words. This is incoherent, as the comparison should be done using the reconstructed forms of Proto-Basque. [19] : 424 

Jürgen Udolph shows that some of the assumed Vasconic roots are in fact Indo-European like Vennemann's *muna, especially since Proto-Basque lacked word initial /m/. [20] Stefan Georg adds, that some roots do not exist in Basque or Proto-Basque. [13]

According to Lutz Reichardt the hypothesis is based on the assumption that "settlement continuity exists and that this means continuity of names throughout all languages being spoken in that settlement". [21] : 399  Furthermore, he criticizes the methodology applied by those who support the Vasconian hypothesis: [21] : 405 

[The words] are segmented arbitrarily and some segments are explained poorly, others are not explained at all. In addition, the elements -ingen, -hûsen, -dorf, -bach etc. are supposed to have been added to the toponymy at a later date although there is no proof for this assumption in historical documents. [21] : 405 

Hayim Y. Sheynin, an expert on Semitic languages, reviewed the work of Vennemann and concluded that his reasoning is based on outdated data and scientific works rejected by critics. He states that much of the evidence presented for an Afro-Asiatic stratum is objectable and based on mere sound similarities only. [22]

Peter Anreiter noted that toponymy with an unknown meaning can be "interpreted" in almost any language. To demonstrate his point, he then "interprets" the Vasconisms proposed by Vennemann as Turkish words. [23] : 25–27  Nonetheless, he states that words with plausible Indo-European etymology should be considered as toponymy of Indo-European origin. [23] : 63 

Piotr Gąsiorowski cautioned that it is unclear whether or not an Old European Hydronymy exists at all. According to him it is mere speculation to postulate an etymology for similarly appearing toponymy from a vast area without being able to show that they are indeed from the same substratum. [24]

Origin of the vigesimal numerical systems in Europe

Vennemann argues that the vigesimal numerical systems in the modern Celtic languages, in French and Danish are a remnant of the Vasconic vigesimal counting system. According to Manfred Kudlek, Old Irish and Gallic did not have vigesimal counting systems and neither did Old Norse. The vigesimal systems in the respective languages developed during the Middle Ages, e.g. Danish started to use a vigesimal system in the 13th/14th century. Therefore, the French system cannot be the result of Celtic influence. [25] Kudlek proposes that the Celtic and Danish systems are loans from French. [25] Brigitte Bauer, too, rejects substratal influence. She suggests that intrasocietal developments, e.g. in the monetary system, may explain the adoption of vigesimal systems. [26]

Genetics

Manfred Kayser and Lutz Roewer, both experts on genetics, commented in 2013 that genetics do not reveal anything about the languages spoken by the individuums. Furthermore, the information genetics can deliver on population historical hypothesis is limited. [27]

Dieterlen and Bengtson find the distribution of blood factors and haploid groups is convincing evidence for Basque settlement in Western Europe before the Indo-Europeans settled there in line with Vennemann's hypothesis. They note that similarity between the distributions in Basque areas and Sardinia. [28]

See also

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References

  1. ↑ See Krahe, Hans (1963). Die Struktur der alteuropäischen Hydronymie[The structure of the Old European hydronymy] (in German). Wiesbaden/Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz. OCLC   4872207.
  2. 1 2 3 Vennemann, Theo; Hamel, Elisabeth (1 May 2002). "Ursprache: Vaskonisch war die Ursprache des Kontinents". Spektrum der Wissenschaft (in German). Heidelberg: 32–40. ISSN   0170-2971.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Zur Frage der vorindogermanischen Substrate in Mittel- und Westeuropa" [On the question of Pre-Indo-European substrata in Central and Western Europe]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 517–590. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  4. 1 2 3 Baldi, Philip; Page, B. Richard (December 2006). "Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica". Lingua . 116 (12): 2183–2220. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2005.03.011. Abstract: In this review article we evaluate Theo Vennemann's provocative theories on the role of Afroasiatic and Vasconic (e.g. Basque) languages in the pre-historic development of Indo-European languages in Europe as presented in the volume Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica, a collection of 27 of Vennemann's essays...
  5. ↑
    • Vennemann, Theo (1995). "Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa". Der Ginkgo-Baum: Germanistisches Jahrbuch für Nordeuropa (in German). 13 (39–115). Helsinki: University of Helsinki. ISSN   0359-7210.
    • Vennemann, Theo (2003) [1995]. "Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa" [Etymological relations in Old Europe]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 203–298. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  6. ↑
    • Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.). Languages in prehistoric Europe. Indogermanische Bibliothek (2 ed.). Heidelberg: Winter. pp. 319–332. ISBN   3-8253-1449-9.
    • Vennemann, Theo (2012) [2003]. "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Germania Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 259. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 257–268. doi:10.1515/9783110301090. ISBN   9783110300949 . Retrieved 26 December 2022.
  7. 1 2 Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (2003). "Introduction". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. XV–XXII. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  8. ↑ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "German Eisvogel, Greek halkyon, English alder. A study in Old European Etymology". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 315–342. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  9. ↑ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Remarks on some British place names". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 479–516. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  10. ↑ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Volksetymologie und Ortsnamenforschung". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 753–802. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  11. ↑ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Basken, Semiten, Indogermanen: Urheimatfragen in linguistischer und anthropologischer Sicht" [Basques, Semites, Indo-Europeans: Questions about the Urheimat from a linguistic and an anthropological point of view]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 453–472. ISBN   3-11-017054-X.
  12. ↑ Peter, Forster; Hamel, Elisabeth (1 May 2002). "Ursprache: Drei Viertel unserer Gene stammen von den Urbasken". Spektrum der Wissenschaft (in German). Heidelberg: 41–45. ISSN   0170-2971.
  13. 1 2 Georg, Stefan (1 September 2014). "Europa Semitica? Kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie (in German). 61 (1). Berlin: De Gruyter: 294–299. doi:10.1515/zcph.2014.028. S2CID   164830023.
  14. ↑ Kitson, P.R. (November 1996). "British and European River-Names". Transactions of the Philological Society. 94 (2): 73–118. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1996.tb01178.x.
  15. ↑ Meier-Brügger, Michael (2010). Fritz, Matthias; Mayrhofer, Manfred (eds.). Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft (in German) (9 ed.). Berlin/New York: De Gruyter. p. 166. doi:10.1515/9783110251449. ISBN   978-3-11-025144-9. Eine eigene Dynamik entfaltet Th. Vennemann. Er bezieht Baskisch und Hamito-Semitisch in seine Theorien zur sprachlichen Vorgeschichte Europas mit ein und rechnet mit einem alten Nebeneinander von vaskonischen, atlantischen und indogermanischen Sprachen. Seine Hypothesen sind allesamt reich an nicht beweisbarer Phantasie.
  16. ↑ Steinbauer, Dieter H. (2005). "Vaskonisch - Ursprache Europas?" [Vasconic - The original language of Europe?]. In Hauska, Günter (ed.). Gene, Sprachen und ihre Evolution: Wie verwandt sind die Menschen - wie verwandt sind ihre Sprachen?[Gens, languages and their evolution: How closely related are humans - How closely related are their languages?]. Schriftenreihe der Universität Regensburg (in German). Vol. 29. Regensburg: Universitätsverlag Regensburg. pp. 53–67. ISBN   3-930480-46-8. ISSN   0171-7529.
  17. ↑ Lakarra, Joseba A. (2013). "On Ancient European and Reconstruction of Proto-Basque". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa. Hamburg: Baar. pp. 65–150. ISBN   978-3-935536-06-6.
  18. ↑ Trask, R. Larry (1997). The history of Basque. London: Routledge. ISBN   9780415867801.
  19. ↑ Bichlmeier, Harald (2013). "Analyse und Bewertung der sprachwissenschaftlichen Standards aktueller Forschungen traditioneller Art zur 'alteuropäischen Hydronymie' aus der Perspektive der heutigen Indogermanistik". Namenkundliche Informationen (in German) (101/102). Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag: 397–438. doi: 10.58938/ni496 . S2CID   164307908 . Retrieved 26 December 2022.
  20. ↑ Udolph, Jürgen (2013). "Vaskonisches und Semitisches in Europa aus namenkundlicher Sicht" [Vasconic and Semitic elements in Europe from an onomastic point of view]. In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 211–32. ISBN   978-3-935536-06-6.
  21. 1 2 3 Reichardt, Lutz (1996). "Nachfolger Hans Bahlows". Beiträge zur Namensforschung (in German). 31 (4). Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter: 398–406.
  22. ↑
    • Sheynin, Hayim Y. (21 June 2004). "Review: Historical Linguistics: Vennemann (2003)". The LINGUIST List. Archived from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
    • Sheynin, Hayim Y. (2013) [2004]. "Indo-European, Old European, and Afrasian, or contra Vennemann". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa. Hamburg: Baar. pp. 181–210. ISBN   978-3-935536-06-6.
  23. 1 2 Anreiter, Peter (2013). "Gedanken zum Buch von Theo Vennemann" [Thoughts on the book of Theo Vennemann]. In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 11–64. ISBN   978-3-935536-06-6.
  24. ↑ Gąsiorowski, Piotr (2012). "Against Old European: Why we need to be more specific". In Løye Hejl, Christina; Bahs Jacquet, Janus; Heide, Marie (eds.). Etymology and the European Lexicon. 14th Fachtagung of the Indogermanische Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012. University of Copenhagen. pp. 47–48.
  25. 1 2 Kudlek, Manfred (2010). "Vigesimale Zahlensysteme : in Sprachen Europas und benachbarter Gebiete". In Bachmann, Armin R.; Himstedt, Katja; El Mogharbel, Christliebe (eds.). Form und Struktur in der Sprache : Festschrift für Elmar Ternes (in German). Tübingen: Narr. pp. 221–240. ISBN   9783823362869.
  26. ↑ Bauer, Brigitte (2004). "Vigesimal numerals in Romance: an Indoeuropean perspective". General Linguistics. 41: 21–46.
  27. ↑ Udolph, Jürgen; Kayser, Manfred; Roewer, Lutz (2013). "Fragen an die Genforschung". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 361–386. ISBN   978-3-935536-06-6.
  28. ↑ Dieterlen, Florent; Bengtson, John (1 January 2017). "Confirmation de l'ancienne extension des Basques par l'étude des dialectes de l'Europe de l'Ouest romane" [Confirmation on the former extension of the Basque through the study of Western European Romance dialects]. Journal of Language Relationship (in French). 14 (1–2). Piscataway: Gorgias Press: 1–28. doi: 10.31826/jlr-2017-141-204 .
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