Andamanese languages

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Andamanese
(geographic)
Geographic
distribution		 Andaman Islands
Linguistic classification Great Andamanese and Ongan languages not genetically related
Subdivisions
Language codes
Schematic Map of Andamanese Languages & Tribes.png
Distribution of Andamanese tribes at time of British contact

The Andamanese languages are the various languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. There are two known Andamanese language families, Great Andamanese and Ongan, as well as two presumed but unattested languages, Sentinelese and Jangil.

Contents

Although the languages in the Andaman Islands were once thought to be the same language family, it is now widely accepted that Great Andamanese and Ongan have no genealogical relationship. Thus, the term "Andamanese languages" is now a geographic label.

Classification

The attested Andamanese languages fall into two genetically unrelated families: [1] [2]

In addition, there are two unattested languages:

The languages of the Andaman Islands have frequently been assumed to be from the same single Andamanese language family. However, the similarities between Great Andamanese and Ongan are so far mainly of a typological morphological nature, with little common vocabulary. Abbi (2009) demonstrated that the Andaman Islands have two unrelated language families: Great Andamanese and Ongan. [2]

Blevins (2007) summarizes,

a relationship between Jarawa and Onge and languages of the Great Andaman group is not widely accepted. Radcliffe-Brown (1914:40) found only seven potential cognates between Onge and Bea/Jeru, and noted that the difference between Onge and the Great Andaman languages "is such that it would not be possible from consideration of the vocabulary alone to prove that they belonged to the same language stock." [...] Abbi (2006:93) is agnostic, stating that "current linguistic analysis does not, with any certainty, indicate any genetic relationship between Great Andamanese and the other two languages." The only positive evidence offered in support of this relationship is a listing of 17 word pairs as proposed cognates in Manoharan (1989:166–67). There are several problems with Manoharan's proposal [such as semantic mismatches and failing to identify loans. ...] Given evidence that shows these languages have been in contact, and the scarcity of data available at present on Great Andaman languages, there remains no persuasive evidence of a family relationship between Jarawa-Onge and the Great Andaman languages. [...] Greenberg (1971:810) is unconvinced of the relation between Great Andaman and Onge-Jarawa, agreeing with Radcliffe-Brown (1914) that "…there are very few vocabulary resemblances between this language [Onge] and those of Great Andaman and the only real point of contact is typological. … A few citations from Onge have been included in the general Indo-Pacific vocabulary, but both its special relationship to the languages of the rest of the Andamans and its assignment to Indo-Pacific must be considered highly provisional."

Controversial classifications

Joseph Greenberg proposed that the Great Andamanese languages are related to western Papuan languages as members of a phylum he called Indo-Pacific, [6] but this is not generally accepted by other linguists. Stephen Wurm states that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and certain languages of Timor "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity […] in a number of instances", but considers this to be due to a linguistic substratum rather than a direct relationship. [7]

Blevins (2007) proposes that the Ongan languages are related to Austronesian in an Austronesian–Ongan family, for which she has attempted to establish regular sound correspondences. [8] The proposed connection between Austronesian and Ongan has not been supported by Austronesianists, and Robert Blust (2014) finds that Blevins' conclusions are not supported by her data: Of her first 25 reconstructions, none are reproducible using the comparative method, and Blust concludes that the grammatical comparison does not hold up. Blust, in addition, cites non-linguistic (such as cultural, archaeological, and biological) evidence against Blevins' hypothesis. [9]

History

The indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands have lived there for thousands of years. Although the existence of the islands and their inhabitants was long known to maritime powers and traders of the South– and Southeast–Asia region, contact with these peoples was highly sporadic and very often hostile. As a result, almost nothing is recorded of them or their languages until the mid-18th century.

By the late 18th century, when the British first established a colonial presence on the Andaman Islands, there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese living on Great Andaman and surrounding islands, comprising 10 distinct tribes with distinct but closely related languages.

From the 1860s onwards, the British established a penal colony on the islands, which led to the subsequent arrival of mainland settlers and indentured labourers, mainly from the Indian subcontinent. This coincided with the massive population reduction of the Andamanese due to outside diseases.

One of the first accounts in English of the languages was by the early phonetician Alexander John Ellis, who presented to the Philological Society on the South Andamanese languages on his retirement. This presentation was later adapted into a Report of Researches into the Language of the South Andaman Island. [10]

By the beginning of the 20th century most of these populations were greatly reduced in numbers, and the various linguistic and tribal divisions among the Great Andamanese effectively ceased to exist, despite a census of the time still classifying the groups as separate. [11] Their linguistic diversity also suffered as the surviving populations intermingled with one another, and some also intermarried with Karen (Burmese) and Indian settlers.

Andamanese comparative distribution.png

By the latter part of the 20th century, the majority of Great Andamanese languages had become extinct.

At the start of the 21st century only about 50 or so individuals of Great Andamanese descent remained, resettled to a single small island (Strait I.). About half of these individuals speak what may be considered a modified version (or creole) of Great Andamanese, based mainly on Aka-Jeru. [2] This modified version has been called "Present Great Andamanese" by some scholars, [12] [13] but also may be referred to simply as "Jero" or "Great Andamanese". Hindi increasingly serves as their primary language, and is the only language for around half of them. [3]

The Ongan languages survive mainly because of the greater isolation of the peoples who speak them. This isolation has been reinforced by an outright hostility towards outsiders and extreme reluctance to engage in contact with them by South Andamanese tribes, particularly the Sentinelese and Jarawa. The Sentinelese have been so resistant that their language remains entirely unknown to outsiders.

Lexicon

Abbi (2009) [2] lists the following lexical items for Onge, Jarawa, and Great Andamanese, showing that Ongan and Great Andamanese are distinct language families sharing few lexical similarities.

English Onge Jarawa Great Andamanese
boatɖaŋɛ cɨ(cagiya paɖa)-taŋ/daŋrowa
bowɪjaaːwko
childɨcɨʐɨɨcɨʐəʈʰire
crocodileʈɔjəgɨtorogijəisare-ka-teo
crowswawa-lewaːrawpʰaʈka
dogwəːme, uamewɔmcaːw
goatʈikʷabulitʰikʰwa-gopejajo–
laughɨɲjaəniaːkʰole
waterɨɲeiːɲino
1SG (I)mimiʈʰu
2SG (you)ɲiɲiɲ
forehead-ejale-ejea-beŋ
eye-ejebo-ejebo-ulu
ear-ekʷagɨ-ikʰəwə-boa
elbow-ito-ge-itʰo-ha-bala-tara ɖole
wrist-moɲa-ge-eɲia-ʈʰo
palm-obanaŋ-ge-obaŋna-koro
thumb-oboʈa-ge-obotʰa-kənap
thigh-ibo-ibə-buco
knee-ola-ge-olak ~ -ola-curok
sole-ubtəga-me-ugɖaga-moʈora-ɖole
neck-aŋgiʈo-agiʈʰo-loŋɔ

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A-Pucikwar language</span> Extinct language of the Andaman Islands, India

The Pucikwar language, A-Pucikwar, is an extinct language of the Andaman Islands, India, formerly spoken by the Pucikwar people on the south coast of Middle Andaman, the northeast coast of South Andaman, and on Baratang Island. It belonged to the Great Andamanese family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andamanese peoples</span> People of Andaman archipelago

The Andamanese are the various indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, part of India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the union territory in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The Andamanese are a designated Scheduled Tribe in India's constitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Andamanese</span> Indigenous people in the Andaman Islands

The Great Andamanese are an indigenous people of the Great Andaman archipelago in the Andaman Islands. Historically, the Great Andamanese lived throughout the archipelago, and were divided into ten major tribes. Their distinct but closely related languages comprised the Great Andamanese languages, one of the two identified Andamanese language families.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Onge</span> Ethnic group of Andaman Islands

The Onge are an Andamanese ethnic group, indigenous to the Andaman Islands in Southeast Asia at the Bay of Bengal, India. They are traditionally hunter-gatherers and fishers, but also practice plant cultivation. They are designated as a Scheduled Tribe of India.

The Jangil were one of the Indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands in India. They lived in the interior of Rutland Island, and were given the name Rutland Jarawa because it was supposed that they were related to the neighboring Jarawa people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akar-Bale language</span> Extinct Southern Great Andamanese of India

The Bale language, Akar-Bale, is an extinct Southern Great Andamanese language once spoken in the Andaman Islands in Ritchie's Archipelago, Havelock Island, and Neill Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sentinelese language</span> Presumed language of the Sentinelese of North Sentinel Island

Sentinelese is the undescribed language of the Sentinelese people of North Sentinel Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Due to the lack of contact between the Sentinelese people and the rest of the world, essentially nothing is known of their language or its vitality. The Sentinelese people do not allow outsiders onto the island and are generally hostile towards visitors. Friendly interactions have been rare.

The Jarawas are an indigenous people of the Andaman Islands in India. They live in parts of South Andaman and Middle Andaman Islands, and their present numbers are estimated at between 250–400 individuals. They have largely shunned interaction with outsiders, and many particulars of their society, culture and traditions are poorly understood. Since the 1990s, contacts between Jarawa groups and outsiders grew increasingly frequent. By the 2000s, some Jarawas had become regular visitors at settlements, where they trade, interact with tourists, get medical aid, and even send their children to school.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Onge language</span> Ongan language of Little Andaman Island

The Onge language, also known as Önge, is one of two known Ongan languages within the Andaman family. It is spoken by the Onge people in Little Andaman Island in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ongan languages</span> Family of two Andamanese languages

Ongan, also called Angan, South Andamanese or Jarawa–Onge, is a language family which comprises two attested Andamanese languages spoken in the southern Andaman Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Andamanese languages</span> Nearly extinct language family of the Andaman Islands

The Great Andamanese languages are a nearly extinct language family once spoken by the Great Andamanese peoples of the northern and central Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, and part of the Andamanese sprachbund.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aka-Kede language</span> Extinct Great Andamanese language of India

The Kede language, Aka-Kede, is an extinct Great Andamanese language, of the Northern group. It was spoken in the Northern section of Middle Andaman island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aka-Bo language</span> Extinct Great Andamanese language

The Bo language, Aka-Bo, was a Great Andamanese language. It was spoken on the west central coast of North Andaman and on North Reef Island of the Andaman Islands in India. It was recorded as being mutually intelligible with Aka-Jeru, and the vocabularies are very similar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aka-Cari language</span> Extinct Great Andamanese language

The Cari, Chariar or Sare language, also known as Aka-Cari, is an extinct Great Andamanese language, of the Northern group, which was spoken by the Cari people, one of a dozen Great Andamanese peoples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aka-Jeru language</span> Nearly extinct Great Andamanese language

The Jeru language, Aka-Jeru, is a moribund Great Andamanese language, of the Northern group. Jeru was spoken in the interior and south coast of North Andaman and on Sound Island. A koiné of Aka-Jeru and other northern Great Andamanese languages was once spoken on Strait Island; the last semi-fluent speaker of this, Nao Jr., died in 2009. Aka-Jeru is the last surviving member of the Great Andamanese languages. According to a grammar on Aka-Jeru, it and Aka-Cari are dialects of a singular language, with lexical correspondency between the two at 93%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)</span> Language of India

Järawa or Jarwa is one of the Ongan languages. It is spoken by the Jarawa people inhabiting the interior and south central Rutland Island, central interior, and south interior South Andaman Island, and the west coast of Middle Andaman Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boa Sr</span> Last fluent speaker of Aka-Bo (c. 1925 – 2010)

Boa Sr was an Indian Great Andamanese elder. She was the last person fluent in the Aka-Bo language.

Jarawa language may refer to:

Austronesian–Ongan is a controversial proposed language family that would include the Ongan and Austronesian language families. The proposal was first proposed by Juliette Blevins in 2007. Ongan is a small family of two attested languages in the Andaman Islands, while Austronesian is one of the largest language families in the world, originating in Taiwan and spreading throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans. The proposed connection has been rejected by other linguists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anvita Abbi</span> Indian linguist and scholar

Professor Anvita Abbi is an Indian linguist and scholar of minority languages, known for her studies on tribal languages and other minority languages of South Asia. In 2013, she was honoured with the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award by the Government of India for her contributions to the field of linguistics.

References

  1. ↑ Manoharan, S. (1983). "Subgrouping Andamanese group of languages." International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics XII(1): 82–95.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Abbi, Anvita (2008). "Is Great Andamanese genealogically and typologically distinct from Onge and Jarawa?" Language Sciences, doi : 10.1016/j.langsci.2008.02.002
  3. 1 2 Abbi, Anvita, Bidisha Som, and Alok Das (2007). "Where Have All The Speakers Gone? A Sociolinguistic Study of The Great Andamanese", Indian Linguistics 68.3–4:325–343. Archived 2021-07-19 at the Wayback Machine.
  4. 1 2 Abbi, Anvita (20 April 2020). "The Pandemic Also Threatens Endangered Languages". Scientific American. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  5. ↑ Webber, George (20 May 2013). "George Webber's Lonely Islands, Chapter 8: The Tribes". Archived from the original on 2013-05-20. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  6. ↑ Greenberg, Joseph (1971). "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." Current trends in linguistics vol. 8, ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok, 807.71. The Hague: Mouton.
  7. ↑ "Wurm, S.A. (1977: 929). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra". Archived from the original on 2010-06-20. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
  8. ↑ Blevins, Juliette (2007), "A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian? Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 46 (1): 154–198, doi:10.1353/ol.2007.0015, S2CID   143141296
  9. ↑ Robert Blust (2014) "Some Recent Proposals Concerning the Classification of the Austronesian Languages", Oceanic Linguistics 53:2:300-391.
  10. ↑ Appendix in Man, Edward Horace (1885). On the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. London: Royal Anthropological Institute.
  11. ↑ Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1922). The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  12. ↑ Abbi, Anvita (2006). Endangered Languages of the Andaman Islands. Germany: Lincom GmbH.
  13. ↑ "Burenhult, Niclas (1996). "Deep linguistic prehistory with particular reference to Andamanese." Working Papers 45, 5–24. Lund University: Department of Linguistics" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-04-25. Retrieved 2006-04-07.

Bibliography

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