Kru languages

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Kru
Geographic
distribution
Ivory Coast, Liberia, Burkina Faso
Linguistic classification Niger–Congo?
  • disputed
    • Kru
Proto-languageProto-Kru
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-2 / 5 kro
Glottolog krua1234  (Kru)
siam1242  (Siamou)
Kru languages.png
Kru languages, labeled as above

The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.

Contents

Classification

According to Güldemann (2018), Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo. Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.

Etymology

The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe". [1]

History

Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade". [2] The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.

Current status

Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire". [3] "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts". [3] The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English (in Liberia) or French (in Côte d'Ivoire) as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons". [3] The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood.

Subgroups and associated languages

The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication". [4] Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages. [5]

Marchese's (1989) classification of Kru languages is as follows. [6] Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.

Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.

Grammar

Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object (SVO), but can also often be subject-object-verb (SOV). [6]

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese (1983): [7]

Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewatereatname
Tepo jíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ̂wũ̂tdâblώklátûgbɛ̀nîjẽ́
Jrwe ɟrónω̃̂ã̂mɪ̃̂ã̂ɲɛ̃́mɛ̃̂wṹklώω̂klátúwɛ̀nĩ́ẽ́dîdɛ̂ɲɔ̃́
Guere ɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃mē̃õ̀ŋɔ̄̃ɲmɔ̄̃kpâdîɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Wobé ɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnə̃̂mɛ̄̃õ̀ŋʷɔ̄̃nmɔ̄kpânĩ́ɲnẽ̂
Niaboua ɟîrîlòkûmánáɲéɲéméɛ̃̀ŋʷɔ̄̃ɲēmōkpáɲéɲé
Bété (Daloa) ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdrúkwâɲûŋʉ̂nɪ̂
Bété (Guibéroua) jirijúkwɨ́límə́ɲə́gʌ̂lʌ̂mɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûrûkwáɲúŋʉ́ɲɪ́
Néyo jɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄dòlūféēsūúɲújlɪ́
Godié jɨdíɲūkúlúmə́ɲə́gə̄lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄drùféèɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Koyo jɪjēɲúkiwíglàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēsūúɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Dida ɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dólūkwíjèɲúŋlɪ́
Aïzi zrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪli

An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese (1983): [7]

Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonewatereatname
Aïzi zrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekranrɪli
Vata ɲêflúmênêglàmeɔ̄nɪ̄dūlūɲú
Dida ɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dòlūkwíjèɲúŋlɪ́
Koyo jíjēɲúkwlíŋʉ́nʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Godié ɲūkúlúmə́ňə́gə̀lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄dřùféèɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Néyo jɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄dòlūféēɲújlɪ́
Bété (Guibéroua) jiřijúkwɨ́límə́ňə́gʌ̂lâmɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûřûkwáɲúnʉ́nɪ́
Bété (Daloa) ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdřúkwâɲúnʉ̀nɪ̂
Niaboua lòkûmə́náɲénéméɛ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄ɲēmōkpáɲéné
Wobé ɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnẽ̂mɛ̄ɔ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄nmɔ̄kpânĩ́ɲnẽ̂
Guéré ɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄mẽ̄õ̀ŋɔ̃̄ɲmɔ̃̄kpâdìɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Konobo jidɔnaomlãdaluoklaɲɛdiɲi
Oubi jīrōnōāmēã̄ŋudòùlākalaɲɛ́dīdɛ̄ɲírṍ
Bakwe ɲʉ́ɲákúlúmňṍglɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́tùřúkɔ̄ōɟɨnrɪ
Tépo jíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ́dâblώklánîjẽ́
Grebo nóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄ɲénɔ́klã́nĩ́ɲéné
Klao ɟínɔ̄kũ̀mnã́mɛ̄wɔ̃̄ɲnɔ̄kpã́nĩ́ɲnɛ̃́
Bassa ɟélémánámiɔwɔ̃̄nyɔmɔɔkpáɗiŋɛ́nɛ́
Dewoin giremálã́mīlã̀wɔ̃̄ĩ́ɲimogbaŋɛ́lɛ́
Kuwaa sĩ̌nɔiɲũmɛ̀wũwɔ̃̀tòyòkwanímíɟìɲɛlɛ̃
Sɛmɛ ɲatasjẽmarɲenkpardi

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages: [8]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Kuwaa Kuwaa (Belleh) deesɔ̃rtãã̀ɲìjɛ̀hɛwàyɔ̀ɔwɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ (5 + 1)kɔrlɔrɔ̃r (5 + 2)kwatãã̀ (5 + 3)kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ (5 + 4)kowaa
Seme Seme (Siamou) (1)byẽ́ẽnĩ́ĩ̄tyáāryūrkwɛ̃̄lkpã̄âkĩ̄îkprɛ̄n̂kɛ̄l
Seme Seme (Siamou) (2)dyuɔ̃15nĩ15tyɛr15yur3kwɛ̃l3k͡pa4a34kyi4ĩ34k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34kal3fu1
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé ɗôːsɔ̂ːtʌ̄ːmɾɔ̄ːɡ͡bə̀ə̄ŋǔːɗō (5 + 1)ŋǔːsɔ̄ (5 + 2)ŋǔːtʌ̄ (5 + 3)ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ (5 + 4)pʊ̀
Eastern, Bakwe Wané do³ / ɗo³sɔ²ta³ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ŋʷũ⁴²ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴(5 + 1)ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² (5 + 2)ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ (5 + 3)ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ (5 + 4)ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
Eastern, Bete Daloa Bété ɓlʊ̄sɔ̋mʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1)ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2)ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3)ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4)kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Bete Guiberoua Bété ɓlʊ̄sɔ̋mʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1)ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2)ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3)ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4)kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Bete Godié ɓlōōsɔ́ɔ́tāāŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nāŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo (5 + 1)ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2)ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā (5 + 3)ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Bete, Eastern Gagnoa Bété ɓɵ̯̀ɺōsɔ̋tɑ̄mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡búɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó (5 + 1)ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ (5 + 2)ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā (5 + 3)fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
Eastern, Bete, Eastern Guébie Bété ɡ͡bɔlɔ².³so⁴ta³¹mɔna¹.³¹mŋɡ͡be²mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ (5 + 1)mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ (5 + 2)mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ (5 + 3)mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ (5 + 4)kɔɡ͡ba².³
Eastern, Bete, Eastern Kouya ɓlòsɔ́mnʊ̀àɡ͡buɡ͡beliɓlò (5 + 1)ɡ͡besɔ́ (5 + 2)ɡ͡betā (5 + 3)ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à (5 + 4)kuɡ͡bua
Eastern, Dida Yocoboué Dida bólómwɔsɔ́mwɔtámwɔnáɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ (5 + 1)ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2)ɛmɓáta (5 + 3)ɛmvwanákóɡ͡ba
Eastern, Dida Neyo ɓɔ̄lósɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāɡ͡bɪ́ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ (5 + 1)ɡ͡básɔ́ (5 + 2)ɡ͡bátā (5 + 3)fɛ̄nā (5 + 4)kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Kwadia Kodia ɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³²sɔː²taː²mɔna⁴³ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ (5 + 1)ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ (5 + 2)ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ (5 + 3)ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ (5 + 4)kʊɡ͡ba³³
Western, Bassa Bassa ɖò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́hĩinyɛhm̀m̌mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò (5 + 1)mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã (5 + 3)mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4)ɓaɖa-bùè
Western, Bassa Dewoin (Dewoi) ɡ͡bǒsɔ̃́tahĩinyɛhm̀m̌meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ (5 + 1)meɖe-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)meɖe-ta (5 + 3)meɖe-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4)
Western, Bassa Gbasei (Gbii) (1)dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱsɔ̃́ɲ̀yɛ̃m̀ḿm̀mɽědɔ̀ (5 + 1)m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ (5 + 2)m̀mɽětã́ (5 + 3)m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ (5 + 4)báɽápʰùwe
Western, Bassa Gbii (Gbi-Dowlu) (2)dòò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́hĩ̀nyɛhm̀m̀mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò (5 + 1)mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ (5 + 3)mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ (5 + 4)ɓaɖabùè
Western, Grebo, Glio-Oubi Glio-Oubi hwə̃tã́hə̃ɡ͡bə̀hṹdò (5 + 1)hũ̀sɔ́ (5 + 2)mɛra (5 + 3)mɛ́ɲɛ̀ (5 + 4)pue
Western, Grebo, Ivorian Pye (Piè) Krumen hʋɛ̃́hɛ̃̀hũ̌hũ̀jārō [hũ̀jāɾō] ('five plus one')hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ ('five plus two')hũ̀jātā ('five plus three')hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ ('five plus four')
Western, Grebo, Ivorian Tepo Krumen (1)hɔ̃́hɛ̃̀hũ̌huõ̀nɔ̀ (5 + 1)nɪ́pātā (litː 'not/be/three')nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ (2 x 4)sēlédò (litː 'remains /there/one')
Western, Grebo, Ivorian Tepo Krumen (2)ɔ̄ɛ́nhɛ̀nùmùmnɔ̄dô (5 + 1)ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n (5 + 2)blɛ̄nbìɛ̀nùmīyándō
Western, Grebo, Liberian Central Grebo (Barrobo) dòoɔ̌ntaanhɛ̃ɛnwùunwùnɔ̀dǒ (5 + 1)jetan (4 + 3) ?jiinhɛ̀n (4 + 4) ?sǒndò (litː 'remain one' before 10)
Western, Grebo, Liberian Northern Grebo dosɔ̃̌hɛ̃̀m̀mmmɔ̀do (5 + 1)nyiɛtã (4 + 3)nnyɛɛ (4 + 4)siědo (litː 'remain one' before 10)
Western, Klao Klao sɔ́ntannyìɛ̀mùnéɛ́do (5 + 1)mùnéɛ́sɔ́n (5 + 2)mùnéɛtan (5 + 3)sopádo (10 - 1)puè
Western, Klao Tajuasohn doesunn nn = ?tanhinhoomḿhon doe (5 + 1)ḿhon sunn (5 + 2)hinin (4 + 4)siɛrdoe (litː 'remains one')punn
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn Western Krahn tòòsɔɔ̌nta̓a̓nnyìɛ̓m̀m̌mɛ̀o̓ (5 + 1)mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n (5 + 2)mɛta̓a̓ǹ (5 + 3)mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ (5 + 4)pùèè
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn Sapo duě / tòòsɔntannyìɛm̀m̌mɛ̀lǒ (5 + 1)mɛ̀sɔn (5 + 2)mɛ̌tan (5 + 3)mɛ̌nyiɛ (5 + 4)pùè
Western, Wee, Nyabwa Nyabwa (Nyaboa) do4sɔ̃2tã3ɲiɛ33mu4u1mɛ4ɛ1lo4 (5 + 1)mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 (5 + 2)mɛ4ɛ1tã3 (5 + 4)mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 (5 + 5)bue44
Western, Wee, Wobe Northern Wè (Wobe) too3 / due1sɔɔn2 / sɔn2taan3nyiɛ43mm41mɛ41o3 (5 + 1)mɛ41sɔn2 (5 + 2)mɛ41na3 (5 + 3)mɛ41nyiɛ3 (5 + 4)puue3

Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguageonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightninetentwentyhundred
Siamou Seme nḭtʸaryirokʷḛkpaakʸiiprɛkalfukarkarkʷḛ
Aizi Aïzi mṵmɔ̰; yreiʃɪitayeɓiyugbofriʃipatɛfigujuyugbo
Kuwaa Kuwaa deesɔ̰ɔ̰ta̰à̰ɲìyɛ̀wààyòfolɛ̀kɔ̰lo̰kʷata̰à̰ko̰yḭ̀yɛ̰̀kuwakuma sɔ̰᷄kɔ̀lɛwúlú
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)mblòmɔ̀sɔ́mɔ̀tāmɔ̀ɔ̀nāǹgbīǹgbʊfɾʊǹgbɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ǹgbàátāǹvɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́gbāgrʊ̄gwlīǹgbī
Eastern, Dida Vata ɓlɔ̀sɔ̍mɔ̀ɔ̀nāgbe̍gbòɔ́sɔ́gbɔ̍fɔ́tākógba̍golō
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ̍mʊ̀nàńgbɨ́ńgbʊ́pʊ́lʊ́ńgbísɔ̍ńgbɔ̍táńgbɨ́mʊ̀nàkúgbɨ́ágʊ́lʊ́gʊ́lúgbɨ́
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ́mʊ̀ʌ̀nān̄gbɨ́n̄gbʊ̍pʊ̍lʊ̍n̄gbi̍sógbʊ̀ʌ́tān̄gbɨ̍mʊ̀ʌ̀nākʊ̄gbʌ̍gʊ̍lʊ̍gʷʉ̍lɪ̍n̄gbɨ̍
Eastern, Bete Godié ɓʉ̄lʉ̄sɔ́mʊ̀ʊ̀nʌ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄pʉ̄lʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbɔ̀ɔ̄sɔ́ʌ̰̀gbàāɨʌ̄pɛɛ̀nʌ̄kʊ́gbʌ̍gɔ̀lɔ̀gʷʌ̀lɪ̀gbʉ̄
Eastern, Bete Koyo ɓɔ̄lɔ̄sɔ̄mɔ̀nāŋ̀gbɨ́ŋ̀gbóplóŋ̀gbɔ́sɔ́ŋ̀gbátāǹvɔ̀nākʊ́gbágʊ̄lʊ̄gʊ̀lɪ̀ɲ́gbɨ́
Eastern, Bete Néyo ɓʊ̄lʊ́sɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāgbɪ́gbɪ́flɔ́gbásɔ́gbátāfɛ̄nākʊ́gbáglʊ́gʷlɪ̀gbɪ́
Western, Klao Klao dòòsʊ̰́tā̰ā̰ɲḭɛ̀mùùŋmìɛ̀dòŋmìɛ̀sɔ̰́ŋmìɛ̀tā̰sɛpáádōpūɪ̄wlʊ̄wlʊ̄mù
Western, Bassa Bassa dɔ̀òsɔ̄ta̰hḭiɲɛhm̀m̀hɔ̰́dɔ̀
Western, Bassa Déwoin gbòsɔ̰tà̰ɲìɛ̄m̀m̄mɛ̀legbōmɛ̀lēslɔ̰́mɛ̀lēá̰mɛ̀le̍ɲìɛèvù
Western, Grebo Tépo do̍hɔ̰́ta̍hɛ̰̀hwɔ̰̀nɔ̀nɪ́pa̍hɔ̰̍nɪ́pa̍ta̍se̍rédópu̍a̍ wlʊ̀wlɪ̄ m̄
Western, Grebo Grébo sɔ̰́tá̰hɛ̰᷄hm̀úbéhɛ̰᷄sīe̍dōpūnɔ́dōwōdóhúbū
Western, Grebo Oubi hʷə̰tá̰hə̰gbə̀hṵ́dòhṵ̀sɔ́mɛramɛ́ɲɛ̀puegōrōgòléhm̄
Western, Grebo Jrwe do̍òhʊ̰́ɛ̰́ta̍a̍hɛ̰̍ɛ̰̀hm̀m̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍rʊ̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍hʊ̰́ɛ̰́hm̀m̍ja̍ta̍hm̀m̍ja̍hɛ̰̀pu̍wlʊ̍wɛ̀srɛ̍wɛ̍
Western, Wee Guéré dòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄ ~ ɲīɛ̄; ɲīɛ̄ ~ ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄m̄ḿmɛ̰̄ɛ̰́ō̰mɛ̰̄sɔ̰̍mɛ̰̄á̰mɛ̰᷄ɲɛ̰̍bùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̰̍dūe̍
Western, Wee Nyabwa dʊ̀sɔ̰́tā̰ɲìɛ̄mùu̍mɛ̄ɛ̍lʊ̀mɛ̄ɛ̍sɔ̰̄mɛ̄ɛ̍tā̰mɛ̍ɲīēbùèglòlùéglàmùu̍
Western, Wee Wobé tòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲìɛ̄m̄ḿmɛ̄ɛ́ōmɛ̰̍́sɔ̰̍mɛ᷄na̍mɛ᷄ɲɛ̍pùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̍du̍e̍
Western, Wee Konobo buwɛla̰a̰ɲiɛmmmɛɛɔ̰mɛlabuwɛkʷalaso̰kɛ̰ɛ̰

Body parts (head)

Parts of the head from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguageheadhaireyeearnosetoothtonguemouth
Siamou Seme gmelfleɲiɲatasyḛmarɲenko̰
Aizi Aïzi drʊlɪfɪzrelʊkɔmʊvɔɲɪmrɔmu
Kuwaa Kuwaa wúlúdùisḭ̌nɔiɲṵmɛ̀wṵwɔ̰̀
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)wlíɲweeɲʉ́ɲákúlúml̰ó̰glɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)wlúɲɪ̄ɲūklwímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄
Eastern, Dida Vata ɲe̍ɲe̍flúme̍ne̍glàmeɔ̄nɪ̄
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)wu̍lu̍kpèlèɲúkōjiyu̍ku̍li̍mlə̍gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋō
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)wúkpə̀léɲū-kʷə̄yiɾiyúkʷɨ́límə́l̰ə́gʌ̍la̍mɪ̄ɔ̄nu̍ə̍
Eastern, Bete Godié wúlúɲɪ̄yɨdíɲūkúlúmə́l̰ə́gə̄lèmɪɔ̄nə̄
Eastern, Bete Koyo wúlúɲɪ́īyɪ́yēɲūklwíŋʉ́ŋʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́
Eastern, Bete Néyo ɲɪ́yɪ́ɲúkʷlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄
Western, Klao Klao dlo᷄nūi᷄jinɔ̄kṵ̀mna᷄mɛ̄wɔ̰̄
Western, Bassa Bassa dyéɖéɖùǔmánányɛ́nɛ́wɔ̰
Western, Bassa Déwoin dúlúgiremálá̰mīlà̰wɔ̰̄ḭ́
Western, Grebo Tépo lú púpu̍yíe̍nʊ̍a̍mɪ̍yá̰ɲɛ́mɛ̍ ~ mé; mé ~ mɛ̍wṵ̍t
Western, Grebo Grébo lu᷄ye̍nóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄
Western, Grebo Oubi miyīrōnōāmēā̰ŋu
Western, Grebo Jrwe lé ɲà̰ɛ̰̍jrónʊ̰̍a̰̍mɪ̰̍a̰̍ɲɛ̰́mɛ̰̍wṵ́
Western, Wee Guéré drúmíījrííēdōṵ́ɓʊ̄djūlɛ̀mɛ̰̄ò̰ŋɔ̰̄
Western, Wee Nyabwa dru̍nɪ́mə̀ǹèyíɾi̍lòku̍mə́náɲénéméɛ̰̀ŋwɔ̰̄
Western, Wee Wobé jrúmḛ́ḛ̄ ~ me; me ~ mḛ́ḛ̄jríɛ́dōṵ́mla̰̍ɲnḛ̍mɛ̰̍ɔ̰̀ŋwɔ̰̄
Western, Wee Konobo drɔmiyidɔnaomla̰

Body parts (lower)

Other body parts from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguageneckarmbreastintestinesnavellegbonebloodskin
Siamou Seme kʷa̰nʷḛɲēfūkparto̰
Aizi Aïzi vudrɪmʊkʊkraɲrekʊkɔ
Kuwaa Kuwaa fɛ̀lɛɲàlìsḭyà̰bɔ̰̀kʷato̍yòkṵ᷆
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)plidáɾóɲɪ̄tɪ̄mʊ̰̄kʷɛ̄ɓɔōkɔ̄ōtùɾú
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)brɪ̀ ~ bɾɪ̀; bɾɪ̀ ~ brɪ̀sɔ̄ɲētīmɪ̄mʊ́kʊ̄díèɓōkwíyèdòlūkpʊ̄kpā
Eastern, Dida Vata sɔ̄me̍mókɔ̍lɛ̍ɓɔ̄gʊ̀fa̍dūlūfu̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)blʊ̀sɔ́ɲɪ́tɪ́wɪ̍dàīɓʊ́kwa̍dɾú
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)bʊ̀lʊ́sɔ̍ɲɪ̄tɪ̄mɪ́dàyīɓʊ̍kʷádu̍ɾu̍ku̍
Eastern, Bete Godié bʌlɛ̄sɔ̄ɲītìmɪ́dèèɓʉ̄féèdɾùkpʊ̄kpʌ
Eastern, Bete Koyo blɛ̀sɔ̄ɔ̄ɲītīyēmɪ́mákɔ̄lʊ́gbāɓɔ̄ɔ́féyēdòlú
Eastern, Bete Néyo blɛ̄sɔ̄ɔ́mɔ́gbàlɪ̄ɲúkōlíéɓɔ̄ɔ́féēdòlūkpʊ̄kpā
Western, Klao Klao pnu᷄sʊ̰̄ɲītīmɔ̄ɛ᷄pùtùbʊ̄kpa᷄ɲnɔ̄
Western, Bassa Bassa bùnùsɔ̃nɛɛ̀mɛ́zììɓokpányɔmɔɔku
Western, Bassa Déwoin būnūnḛɓōgbaɲimo
Western, Grebo Tépo plʊ̀da̍bʊ́nɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ ɲɛ̍yɛ̍; ɲɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ nɛ̍yɛ̍ŋmínɛ́ɛ́ ~ nɛ́; nɛ́ ~ nɛ́ɛ́bʊ̍kláda̍blʊ́kɔ̀ ~ kɔ̍; kɔ̍ ~ kɔ̀
Western, Grebo Grébo plo᷄só̰ɲínēkúdíde̍no̍na᷄kla᷄ɲénɔ́fe᷄
Western, Grebo Oubi pòlòho̰muə̄glinə̰bokaladòùlā
Western, Grebo Jrwe plʊ̀hʊ̰̍ɲɛ̰̍sɛ̍nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍bʊ̍kláklʊ́ʊ̍kɔ̀
Western, Wee Guéré blṵ̄sō̰ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀mḛ̍ɓóàbʊ̍kpa̍ɲmɔ̰̄
Western, Wee Nyabwa būlūsʊ̄ɲētìɛ̀zànɛ̍ɛ̍ɓʊ̄kpáɲēmō
Western, Wee Wobé plṵ̀sō̰ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀mḛ̍sɛ̰̀ ɲɛ̀bʊ̄kpa̍nmɔ̄
Western, Wee Konobo ɲiniɛgbolobokladaluoku

Other nouns

Miscellaneous nouns from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguagesnakeegghorntailropefathermotherwomanchildname
Siamou Seme jàlkʸḛɲanmelɓisyāy̰i
Aizi Aïzi srɪjigbeligɛtɛzuzokekelapɛ
Kuwaa Kuwaa gbɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀kɛ̀ɛ̀mɛ̀kṵ̌béɲídewúlédòyònuɲinɔ̀ɲɛlɛ̰
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)tɾɔ̄sàpɨ́gēyuoŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́yəyieɲrɪ
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)trɛ̄jīègwɪ́gūòɓlūto̍nɔ́ŋwnɔ́cíle̍ŋlɪ́
Eastern, Dida Vata tlɛ̄gì ~ jìvɔ́ɛ̍co̍nɔ́ŋɔnɔ́lo̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)tɪ́mɛ́gʉyīgɔ̍li̍kpə́tɓàŋɔ́nɔ̍gu̍ŋʉ̍nɪ̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)ti̍mɛ̍gʉ̄gʊ́gʷə̀yi̍díkpə̍dɪ̄bàŋɔ́ɾɔ́ŋʉ́l̰ɪ́
Eastern, Bete Godié trɛ̄gɪ̀vɪ̄gə̀ɓɨlɨ́kpə̄tʉ́ŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́yɪ́ŋʉ́nʉ́
Eastern, Bete Koyo miɛ̄bòlúgɪ̀yēɓlíyēnɔ́ŋɔ́nɔ́ŋɨ́nɨ́
Eastern, Bete Néyo tlɛ̄vʊ́ɓlútʊ́nɛ́ŋʷló̰yʊ́ylɪ́
Western, Klao Klao slɛ̄ɲɛ᷆ŋmo̰᷆wʊ̰᷆dlu᷄ ~ dbu᷄mi᷄ɲnɔ᷄jēgbéɲnɛ᷄
Western, Bassa Bassa gɛ̃̀gmɛ̌vɔ̃ɖúúɓàɖemàadyúŋɛ́nɛ́
Western, Bassa Déwoin sɛ̄wɛ̄geɓùlūɓa̍ma᷅ɲiro; ŋɔ́nɔ́ŋɛ́lɛ́
Western, Grebo Tépo hre̍ŋɔ̀ŋmʊ̄pátàbu̍díí ~ dí; dí ~ dííɲnɔ̍gbádʊ́
Western, Grebo Grébo sídéŋēyēlúdu̍bu̍o̍de᷄ɲénɛ́hḛ̍a̰̍ɲéné
Western, Grebo Oubi herehawɛŋɨ̰nɛŋʷɛ̰bawūlūbuidiɲīrō̰yuɲíró̰
Western, Grebo Jrwe hre̍ɲɔ̰́lòdo̍e̍lúrūnɔ̰̍wáɲl̰ɔ̰́
Western, Wee Guéré sɛ̰̄sō̰a̰̍ gɛ̄ŋm̄ɔ̰̍gō̰dbúdo̍ūjú zá̰à̰ɓāòɲnɪ̰̍
Western, Wee Nyabwa sɛ̰̄sò̰o̰̍ gḛ̄ɛ̰̄gbó̰gō̰ɓlu̍kūtètalótōɲə́nɔ́yu̍ɲéné
Western, Wee Wobé sɛ̰̄so̰᷄kɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀ŋmɛ̀ko̰᷅dbū ~ dbú; dbú ~ dbūɲnɔ̍ kpāo̍jú sǎ̰ā̰ɲnḛ̍
Western, Wee Konobo sɛrɛɲiegbogʷodrubadeɲɪnɪjoweɲi

Nature

Nature-related words from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguagedaysunmoonwaterfirefogseadustsalt
Siamou Seme yefʸɛyefʷǒnṵniɛ
Aizi Aïzi zizecunrɪledejrumagriɓʊɓʊtrʊ
Kuwaa Kuwaa kùlùkàlàkewunímíka̰᷆koojiwolowokìyɔ̀
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)srèjrósɨplekāpūbrutánīēmɔ̰l̰ɔ̰
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)cɾɪ̄ylʊ́cʊ́ɲúkòsūjlūjḭ̄yēpipiglī
Eastern, Dida Vata cʊ̍ɲúkōsūjɛ̰́vie̍ŋúŋu̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)yɪ̍ɾɪ̍yʊ̍ɾʊ̍zàrʊ́na̍pɛ́ɲu̍kòsūgbi̍ɾu̍gɨ-ɲɛ̄ɓu̍kúgʉ́ɓɨ́
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)yɪ́ɾɪ́yʊ́ɾʊ́cʊ́ɲúkòsūju̍ɾu̍jīēɓūù-kʷə̍gɨ̍ɓɨ̍
Eastern, Bete Godié yʊ̀ɾʊ̀yʊɾʊ́cʊ̄ɲúkòsūjùɾùjīyēɓàɓùūgɨ̀ɗɨ̀
Eastern, Bete Koyo yʊ́rʊ́yʊ́rʊ́cʊ́ʊ̄ɲúkòsūjùrùjīyēɓūɓúgʉ̀lʉ̀
Eastern, Bete Néyo zlìylʊ́cʊ́ɲúkōsūjlùgɨ̄ēmʊ̍mʷɪ̄ɪ́gūu̍
Western, Klao Klao ylʊ᷄cʊ̄ni᷄jlu᷄jlōpūpūíto̰᷄
Western, Bassa Bassa dyóɖódɛ̀nɛ̀nyɛdunudyóópúutɔ̃́
Western, Bassa Déwoin nàìtó̰
Western, Grebo Tépo ɲnɔ̀wo̍yrʊ́hɔ̀pɔ̍ni̍yḛ́na̍jrùyrúpúpu̍
Western, Grebo Grébo ŋwɛ́hɔ̀bōni᷄jūdúyúdápúíbi̍ta᷄
Western, Grebo Oubi ɲìrò̰jīrōhɔ̰liɛɲɛ́nàníjùrùtápɛ̀múlɔ̰̀
Western, Grebo Jrwe ɲl̰ɔ̰̀wòjrʊ́hóóònḭ́ḛ́na̰̍jrùti̍e̍púwò
Western, Wee Guéré wɪ̍jru̍cʊ̍nɛ̰̄wɛ̍ìto̰̍nīdjɛ̄ɛ̀tɔ̰̍
Western, Wee Nyabwa wɪ́yórócʊ́ni̍nɛ̄jurūgɨ̄ɨ̄pīpèlètɔ̰̄
Western, Wee Wobé wɪ̍jru̍cʊ̍nḭ́nɛ̰̄cnṵ̄to̰̍nīpu̍ētɔ̰̍
Western, Wee Konobo wɔ̰jɨdocoɲɛnanijluyoomulota

Verbs (1)

Some basic verbs from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguageeatdrinkbitevomitdiekillwalkcome
Siamou Seme dinamunuo̰ko(klo)ko(kɔrɔ)koelbɛ(bla)
Aizi Aïzi limagʷrayranayi
Kuwaa Kuwaa gbɛɲìmìkɔ̀jɛ̀fa̰la̰javanamu
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)ml̰áàml̰uwɔsɔɓláɲɛ́
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)ti̍mlámni̍gɔ̍zɛ̄ɓlánámʊ̍ci̍
Eastern, Dida Vata li̍nia̍nlɪ̍ɓeɔ̀nánɪ́yi̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)nɪ̍ma̍nɨ́mɨ́mə́tītɾɪlɪ̍ɓa̍námʉ́
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)nɪ́mʌ́nīmɨ̄mə́tīlɪ́bʌ́nɛ̍mʉ̍
Eastern, Bete Godié ɗɨ̄mʌ́nʌ́mɨ̄l̰ɨ̄gʷʌ̄sɛ̀ɓʌ́lʌ́nʌ́ʌ̄
Eastern, Bete Koyo lɨ̄ḿlámiɨ̄gɔ̄sɛ̀ɓláná̰à̰
Eastern, Bete Néyo mlámiīgɔ̄zɪ̀ɔ̀ɓla̍nāà
Western, Klao Klao na᷄nmīwlàmɛ᷄dla᷄ ~ dba᷄na᷆
Western, Bassa Bassa ɖinumuhwaɖamɛ́ɖáɓádyi
Western, Bassa Déwoin kuta̰; láwáyi
Western, Grebo Tépo di̍ne̍wlàkʊ́lá ~ la̍; la̍ ~ ládi̍ré
Western, Grebo Grébo na᷄mlíwōdákō(ɛ́)
Western, Grebo Oubi dīdɛ̄wɔ̀làwɔlɔna
Western, Grebo Jrwe di̍dɛ̍ná̰nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍wlàla̍na̰̍di̍rè
Western, Wee Guéré djréèna̍nmūgwlàɗrēdbāna̰᷆
Western, Wee Nyabwa nūmūgəlāgəlálə́ɓá
Western, Wee Wobé na̍nmūkẁlāmɛ̍dba̍na᷆
Western, Wee Konobo dinawlaawɔguladranajlo

Verbs (2)

Other basic verbs from Marchese (1983): [7]

ClassificationLanguagegivedigsleeppushshootsing
Siamou Seme kḛ; kla̰dɛ; latuturgʸai ɲḛ
Aizi Aïzi ɲɛɓrumɔ namʊtugbi
Kuwaa Kuwaa bííwa̰nito᷆kòìfa᷆doyo
Eastern, Bakwe Bakwé (Soubré)ɲemúmɔ̀kʷɛ́ɛ̀
Eastern, Dida Dida (Lozoua)ɲɛ́ɓlíŋɔ̄mʊ̄jri̍ ~ jɾi̍ɓlɪ̄
Eastern, Dida Vata ɓlíɲɔ́nɔ̍súsue̍ɓlɪ̍
Eastern, Bete Bété (Daloa)ɲɛ̍wlùŋɔ́mʉ́súnʊ̄tɪ̍tɾɪ́blɪ̄
Eastern, Bete Bété (Guibéroua)ɲɛ́ɓúlúŋʌ̍mʉ̍súnɪ̄jiɾi ~ jīɾiɓʉ̄lɪ̄
Eastern, Bete Godié ɲɛ́ɓɨ́dɨ́ŋʷɔ́ɔ̄jriɓʉ̄lɪ̄
Eastern, Bete Koyo ɲɛ́ɓlʉ́lʉ́ŋɔ́ɔ̀zɛ́jrɨ̄ɓlɪ̄
Eastern, Bete Néyo ɲɛ́wlúūŋɔ̄jri ~ jrīɓlɪ̄
Western, Klao Klao ɲîblu᷄tṵ᷄jlìblē
Western, Bassa Bassa nyíɓúɖúmɔ́ ; nyíɔcṹpòìnɓeɖe
Western, Bassa Déwoin gḭ́ɓúlúnɔ́sṵ́gbīɓēlē
Western, Grebo Tépo ɲègblúŋmòtúe̍bre̍
Western, Grebo Grébo hḭ᷄búdúmóɔ́tṵ̄blé
Western, Grebo Oubi ɲébúlúiroŋmo̰tūɛ̄gìrɛ̀lɔ́bəlɛ
Western, Grebo Jrwe ɲɛ̰̀blúŋmḛ̍bre̍wlà
Western, Wee Guéré ɓlúmo̰̍tṵ́ble̍
Western, Wee Nyabwa ɲe̍mbulu̍mó̰tūùjīrīɓlē
Western, Wee Wobé ɲḛ̍blúmo̰̍crḭḭa̍ ~ crīīa̍ble̍
Western, Wee Konobo yeblomotuijidiɛble

Reconstruction

Proto-Kru
Reconstruction ofKru languages

According to Marchese Zogbo (2012), Proto-Kru had: [9]

Proto-Kru consonants (Marchese Zogbo 2012):

ptkkp
bdggb
ɓ
mnŋ (?)
s
lw

Derived consonants:

Proto-Kru vowels (Marchese Zogbo 2012):

ɪʊ
eo
ɛɔ
a

There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:

GlossProto-Western KruProto-Eastern Kru
tree*tu*su
dog*gbe*gwɪ
fire**kosu
tooth*ɲnɪ*gle

References

  1. Breitbonde, L. B. (1991). "City, Countryside, and Kru Ethnicity". Africa. 61 (2): 186–201. doi:10.2307/1160614. JSTOR   1160614. S2CID   145592217.
  2. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia UP.
  3. 1 2 3 Bahl, Taru; Syed, M. H., eds. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Muslim World. New Delhi: Ammol Publications. pp. 24–25. ISBN   9788126114191.
  4. McEvoy, Frederick (1997). "Understanding Ethnic Realities among the Grebo and Kru People of West Africa". Africa. 47 (1): 62–80. doi:10.2307/1159195. JSTOR   1159195. S2CID   145689821.
  5. Fisiak, Jacek (1984). Historical Syntax. New York: Mouton.
  6. 1 2 Marchese, Lynell. 1989. Kru. In Bendor-Samuel, John (ed.), The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family, 119-139. Lanham MD, New York & London: Lanham: University Press of America.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Marchese, Lynell. 1983. Atlas linguistique Kru: nouvelle edition. Abidjan: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT).
  8. Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
  9. Marchese Zogbo, Lynell. 2012. Kru revisited, Kru revealed Archived 2020-06-17 at the Wayback Machine . Paper presented at the International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction," Paris, 18‒21 September. (Abstract Archived 2020-06-17 at the Wayback Machine )