Kwa languages

Last updated
Kwa
New Kwa
(proposed)
Geographic
distribution		 Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Togo
Linguistic classification Niger–Congo?
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottolog kwav1236
Niger-Congo map.png
Map showing the distribution of Niger–Congo languages. Light green is the Kwa subfamily.

The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo. The Kwa family belongs to the Niger-Congo phylum. The name was introduced in 1895 by Gottlob Krause and derives from the word for 'people' (Kwa) in many of these languages, as illustrated by Akan names. This branch consists of around 50 different languages spoken by about 25 million people. Some of the largest Kwa languages are Ewe, Akan and Baule.

Contents

Languages

See the box at right for a current classification.

The various clusters of languages included in Kwa are at best distantly related, and it has not been demonstrated that they are closer to each other than to neighboring Niger–Congo languages. [1]

Stewart [2] distinguished the following major branches, which historical-comparative analysis supports as valid groups:

The Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast are not particularly close to any of these, nor to each other, so they are left ungrouped:

An Esuma language, extinct ca. 1800, remains unclassified.

Since Stewart, Ega has been tentatively removed, the Gbe languages reassigned to Volta–Niger, and Apro added. Some of the Na-Togo and Ka-Togo languages have been placed into separate branches of Kwa. [3] See the infobox at right for the resulting branches.

Ethnologue divides the Kwa languages into two broad geographical groupings: Nyo and Left bank, but this is not a genealogical classification. The Nyo group collapses Stewart's Potou–Tano and Ga–Dangme branches and also includes the ungrouped languages of southern Ivory Coast, while the Ka/Na-Togo and Gbe languages are called Left bank because they are spoken to the east of the Volta River.

History of the proposal

The word 'Kwa' was used by Gottlob Krause in 1885 for the Akan (or perhaps Tano), Gã, and Gbe languages, which have kwa or kua as their word for 'human being'. Since then the proposal has been dramatically expanded, only to revert to something approaching its initial conception.

In 1952 Westermann and Bryan expanded Kwa to the various Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast and to what are now called the Volta–Niger languages of southern Nigeria. Greenberg (1963) added the Kru languages of Liberia, the Ghana–Togo Mountain languages which Westermann and Bryan had specifically excluded, and Ijaw of the Niger delta; West Kwa included the languages from Liberia to Dahomey (Republic of Benin), and East Kwa the languages of Nigeria. Bennett & Sterk (1977) proposed that the Yoruboid and Igboid languages belonged in Benue–Congo rather than in Kwa. Stewart (1989) removed Kru, Ijaw, and Volta–Niger (East Kwa), but kept the Ghana–Togo Mountain and Lagoon languages, as well as adding a few obscure, newly described languages. Stewart's classification is the basis of more recent conceptions. To disambiguate this from Greenberg's influential classification, the reduced family is sometimes called "New Kwa".

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of Kwa and related languages from Dumestre (1971) and other sources: [4]

ClassificationLanguageeyeeartoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewater
Ghana-Togo Proto-Central Togo [5] *ki-nu-bí /bi-*ku-túe /a-*li-nía /a-; *li-lúma /a-*ki-níé-bí /bi-*ka-niána /ku-; *o- núí /i-*li-kúpá /a-*ku-wyéu /a-*n-tû
Ga–Dangme Ga [6] hiŋmɛitoi¹nyanyɔŋlilɛi²daa⁴la⁵wu⁴tso³nu⁵
Ga–Dangme Ga [7] hi-ŋmɛitoíɲaɲɔɔlíʔlɛ́ídáʔáláwútʃonu
Ga–Dangme Dangme [7] hí-ŋmɛ́túêlúŋùlílɛ́ɲâàmùɔ̀wûtʃôɲù
Potou-Tano Proto-Potou–Tano [8] *-ɲĩ*-tʊ̃*-nʊ̃*-ju
Potou-TanoProto-Akanic [8] *-ɲĩ*-sʊ̃*-nʊ̃*-cu
Potou-Tano Akan [8] ɜ-nĩa-sʊ̃a-nʊ̃n-su
Potou-TanoProto-Guang [9] *kω-sω*kɔ-nɔ̃*ŋ-kalωŋ*o-yi*ɲ-ču
Potou-Tano Baoulé [4] ɲimasuɟetaama, tãflãnwãmoɟaoɥjewaken̥zɥe
Potou-Tano Ebrié [4] m̥mɛ-ɓin̥ɟɛn̥nɔallɛm̥mɛn̥kan̥eʔweajan̥du
Potou-Tano Krobou [4] ɲɛ-bisun̥ɲɛdandren̥nɔ̃n̥krãm̥rɔɲamɛn̥zɔ
Potou-Tano Aboure [4] ɛɲɛɔwɔn̥ɲɛnãnɛɔblɔn̥nlaeboɛ̃eliben̥tʃwɛ
Potou-Tano Eotile [4] ɛjimaɔhoannaannɛãton̥nan̥tɔwuedwɔn̥su
Potou-Tano Mbatto [4] õɲɛ̃muoõdʒoɔ̃nɔ̃gõolɛẽmẽõglɔ̃õtʃɥiojokuõdu
Lagoon Adioukrou [4] ɲamalɔrunɛnanmnɛɲmeblluwl-ikŋmidʒ
Lagoon Abbey [4] aɛ̃mɔ̃rɔkɔejilɛtɛejimbum̥pjesfjetimidʒi
Lagoon Attie [4] himbɛtehɛ̃nũmɛvø̃fedzakwɛsø
Lagoon Alladian [4] ɛrɛnukun̥ɲiɛwɛ̃ɛmwãn̥krɛn̥wiɛtɛn̥ʃi
Lagoon Avikam [4] eŋwaɓaɛzjɛɓaɛɲrãazraɓaenɔ̃ɛvɛ̃ɛwuezibaɛsɔ̃
Lagoon Abidji [4] nɔnɔwɛrɛteɛɲiinenimitim̥bwoluvutʰimindi
Kru Aizi [4] zrolokɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪ̃
Ega Ega [10] efí /eelowá /a-ɛnʊmà /a-eno /i-ɔ̀mààsɔ̀ìkùote /a-aɗú
Pere Pere [11] jísì-kéénɛ́ɛ́(ⁿ)ɲòŋòmùjèŋgéyúgúɲààmúkóógbèè-tííⁿtúmú
Mpra Mpra [12] anisiatenchumanchumueyiankaw; nkwõ
Dompo Dompo [13] nyisisepenyìdandulokanunklawuuyinsu
Gbe Proto-Gbe [14] *-tó*aɖú*-ɖɛ́*-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá*-ʁʷũ*-χʷú*-tĩ́*-tsĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages: [15]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo Avatime ólèɔ́βàɔ́tàónéót͡ʃùóɡlòɡlóelèɡɔ́tɔ́βàɡɔ́tólélíɔfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo Nyangbo (1)olíɛbʰaɛtáɛlɛ́itíholoɡeneansɛʒitakɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo Nyangbo (2)oliéɛbʰaɛtaéɛlɛetiéholōɡěneéansɛʒitaékɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo Tafi (1)olíɛbʰaɛtáẽlɛitíholōɡénéasuɛ̄ʒitákɛfɔ̄
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo Tafi (2)olíɪbʰaɪtáĩlĩ́itíholōɡénéasʊīʒitákífɔ̄
Left Bank, Gbe Éwé èɖéèvèètɔ̃ènèàtɔ̃àdẽ́adrẽ́èɲíaʃíekéèwó
Left Bank, Gbe Kotafon-Gbe ɖok͡poàwèàtɔ̃̂ènɛ̀àtɔ̃́aɲizɛ̃tsĩ́ã̀wè (litː hand+ 2)tsĩ́ã̀tɔ̃̂ (litː hand+ 3)tsĩ́ɛ̀nɛ̀ (litː hand+ 4)emewó
Left Bank, Gbe Saxwe-Gbe ɑ̀ɖé / ɖók͡póòwêɑ̀tɔ̃̂ɛ̀nɛ̃̂ɑ̀tṹɑ̀dɛ̃́ɑ̀tʃówê (5 + 2)ɑ̀tɾótɔ̃̂ (5 + 3)ɑ̀tʃɛ̃́nɛ̃̂ (5 + 5)òwō
Left Bank, Gbe Waci-Gbe (Gen-Gbe) ɖeka(e)ve(e)tɔn(e)ne(a)tɔ́n(a)dén(á)dlén(e)nyí(e)asiɖeka (10 -1) ?(e)wo
Left Bank, Gbe Western Xwla-Gbe lók͡póɔ̀wèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́àtroók͡pó (5 + 1)àcówèàtsítɔ̃̀àtsíɛ̀ɔ̀síɔsí (litː hand hand)
Left Bank, Gbe Xwla-Gbe òɖě(lók͡pō)ōwèōtɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃̄ɔ̃̄ātrók͡pōācíòwèàtĩ́tɔ̃̀àcíɛ̀nɛ̀ōwóé
Left Bank, Gbe, Aja Aja-Gbe (Aja) eɖé / ɖekaèvè / amɛ̃veetɔ̃̂ / amɛ̃tɔ̃enɛ̀ / amɛ̃nɛ̃atɔ̃ / amãtɔ̃adɛ̃ / amãdɛ̃adɾɛ / amãdɾɛeɲĩ / amɛ̃ɲĩɲíɖe / aʃiɖekɛ / amãʃíɖekɛ (10 -1)ewó
Left Bank, Gbe, Aja Gun-Gbe òɖè / ɖòk͡póàweàtɔnɛnɛ̀nàtɔ́nt͡ʃíɖòk͡pó (?+1)t͡ʃiánwè (?+2)t͡ʃíantɔ̀n (?+3)t͡ʃíɛ́nnɛ̀n (?+4)àwò
Left Bank, Gbe, Fon Fon-Gbe (Fon) ɖěweatɔnɛnɛatɔ́ɔ́nayizɛ́ntɛ́nwe (5 + 2)tántɔn (5 + 3)tɛ́nnɛ (5 + 5)wǒ
Left Bank, Gbe, Fon Maxi-Gbe ɖèéòwèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́ayizɛ̃tɛ́ɛwè (5 + 2)tã́tɔ̃̀ (5 + 3)tɛ̃ɛ̃nɛ̀ (5 + 5)òwó
Left Bank, Gbe, Mina Gen-Gbe (Gen) èɖěèvèētɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃́ɔ̃ādɛ̃́ǎdrɛ̃́ēɲíēɲíɖé (10 -1)ēwó
Left Bank, Kebu-Animere Akebu (1)ʈɛ́ìjítānìə̀ə̀tʊ̄ʊ̀kʊ̀rã̀ŋpīrìmātānɛ̀ĩ̀ŋfã̀ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋtə̀
Left Bank, Kebu-Animere Akebu (2)dɛiyitaːniətuwturaŋprimatanɛŋfant͡ʃet͡ʃeŋ (10 - 1) ?tə
Left Bank, Kebu-Animere Animere bɛɹidintʰaaɳeatʰuŋakʰuɹuŋɳotʰaɳoɳafʊɳetʰi
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili Igo (Ahlon) iliìwàìtãàlã̀ùtɔuɡoùzòniùmàlàúkàliɔ̀wú
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili Ikposo-uwi ɛ̀dɪɛ̀fʷàɛ̀laɛ̀naɛ̀tʊɛ̀wlʊɛ̀wlʊdɪ (6 + 1) ?ɛ̀lɛɛ̀lɛdɪ (8 + 1) ?ìd͡ʒo
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili Tuwuri (Bowiri) kédìkɛ́ɛ́yákààlɛ̀kɛ́ɛ́nákùùlókévũ̀kɛ́kɔ̀nɔ̀kɛ̀ɛ̀lɛ̃̀kàvèdí (10 - 1) ?kùwà
Nyo, Agneby Abé (Abbey) ŋ̀k͡pɔ̄āɲʊ̃́āɾíàlɛ́ōnílɔ̀hɔ̃̀lɔ̀hʍ̃ã̄ɾíèpʲèɲāàkóǹnɛ̀
Nyo, Agneby Abidji ń̩nɔ̀áānʊ̄ɛ̃́ɛ̃̄tɪ̄ã́ã̄lāéēnēnáhʊ̃̀ã̀nɔ̃́ᵐbʊ̀nówònɛ̃́ᵐbrɛ̀ń̩díɔ̀
Nyo, Agneby Adioukrou ɲâmɲóɲɲâhǹjârjênnɔ̂hǹlɔ́bŋ̀níwǹlíbárm̀lɛ̂w
Nyo, Attie Attié èkkɛ́mwʌ̃́kɛ́hã́kɛ́dʒíkɛ̋bʌ̃́kɛ̋mũ̄n̩sőmɔ̃̀kɥɛ́ŋ̩ɡʷãkɛ̃̋ŋ
Nyo, Attie Ga ékòmééɲɔ̀étɛ̃éɟwɛ̀énùmɔ̃ék͡pàak͡pàwo (6 + 1) ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃ (6 + 2) ?nɛ̀ɛhṹɲɔ̀ŋmá
Nyo, Ga-Dangme Dangme kákēéɲɔ̃̀étɛ̃̄éywɛ̀ / éwìɛ̀énũ̄ɔ̃̄ék͡pàk͡pààɡō (6 + 1) ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃̄ (6 + 2) ?nɛ̃̀ɛ̃́ɲɔ̃̀ŋ͡mã́ (plural formː ɲĩ̀ŋ͡mĩ́)
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adele Adele ɛ̀kíɛ̀nyɔ̀ɔ̀nàsìɛ̀nààtònkòòrònkɔ̀rɔ̀nkí (6 + 1) ?nìyɛ̀yɛ̀kí (10 - 1) ?fò
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adele Anii dɨ̄ŋ, ɡādɨ̄ŋ, ɡīdɨ̄ŋ, ɡūdɨ̄ŋīɲīʊ̄, bʊ̄ɲīʊ̄, bāɲīʊ̄,īrīū, īrīū, īrīūīnāŋ, īnāŋ, īnāŋīnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋīkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋkūlūmīɡánáánátʃīīnītɘ̄b
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafu Lelemi ùnwìíɲɔ́ɛ̀tɛ̀ínɛ́ɛ̀lɔ́ɛ̀kúmáátɛ̀ (4 + 3) ?máánɛ́ (4 + 4) ?lɛ́yàlìnwì (10 - 1) ?lèèvù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafu Siwu (Akpafu) ɔ̀wɛ̃̂íɲɔ̂ìtɛ́ínâírùíkùɔ̀ìkɔ́dzɛ̂ (4 + 3) ?fàráfánà (4 + 4) ?káiwɛ̃̂ (10 - 1) ?ìwéó
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi Sekpele (1)nʊ̀ɛ́ (lɛ̀wɛ́)núə̀ǹtsyə́ńnàǹnɔ́ǹkùákùánsèyènínàsélèfòsì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi Sekpele (2)nùɛ́núə̀ǹtsyə́ǹnáǹnɔ́ǹkúakúansèyènínàsélèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi Selee (Santrokofi) ònwíìɔ̀ɲɔ́òtìɛ́ɔ́nàɔ̀nɔ́ɔ̀òkúɔ́kùɛ́nsĩ́ɔ̀nɛ́nàásĩ́lèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba Logba (1)ik͡pɛinyɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba Logba (2)ik͡pɛiɲɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan Bono Twi baakó̃mienumiensánainnumnsiãnsɔŋɔt͡ʃwieŋkrɔŋdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan Akan (Akuapem Twi) (1)baakó~ə̀bìéńə̀bìèsá~ànáńə̀núḿə̀sìá~ə̀sɔ́ńàwòtɕɥé /tw/àkróńdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan Akan (2)baakó̃mmienúmmeɛnsã́(ɛ)náń(e)núḿ(e)nsĩã́(ɛ)nsóńnwɔtwé(ɛ)nkróń(e)dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern Anufo kũɲ̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹʒɛ̃́ǹzômɔ̀cᵘɛ́ŋ̀ɡɔ̀nábúɾú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern Anyin ɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun)ɲɲṹãnsɑ̃nnɑ̃́nnṹnsĩ́ã́nsʊ̂mɔcuɛ́ŋɡʊ̃ɑ̃lɑ̃́búlú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern Baule (Baoulé) kùnǹɲɔ̀nǹsànǹnánǹnúnǹsiɛ́nǹsôǹmɔ̀cuɛ́ǹɡwlànblú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northern Sehwi kʊ̃̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹziã́ǹzɔ́ːmɔ̀tʃwɛ́ǹɡɔ̃̀lã̀bʊ́lʊ́
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern Ahanta ɔ̀kʊ́nàɥɪ̀nàsànànlàə̀nlùə̀ʃiə̀ə̀súŋwààwɔ̀twɛ̀àhɔ́nlàbùnlù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern Nzema ɛ̀kʊ̃ (in counting)/ kʊ̃ (after a noun)ɲ́ɲʊ̃ (tone reversals after nouns)ńsɑ̃ńnɑ̃ńnṹńsĩ́ãńsṹũmɔ́cʊɛŋɡʊ̃lɑ̃́bulú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southern Jwira-Pepesa końwiańsańnańnuńsiãńsuwmɔ́twɛnɡhoaláeburú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Chumburung kɔ́ɪ̀ɲɔ́ɪ̀sáɪ̀náɪ̀núːìsíyéìsúnóːìbùrùwáɪ̀kpánɔ́ːkúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Dwang (Bekye) kɔ́ɔ́aɲóasáanáanúasíéasʊ́nɔat͡ʃwéak͡pɔ́nɔídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Foodo ǹkɔ́ /ɔkʊlamǹɲʸɔ́ǹsáǹnáàŋǹnṹũ̀ / ǹnúŋǹséèǹsínōdùkwéè / dùkoiǹk͡pánɔ̀dúdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Ginyanga okouiɡnoissainainounissisonoɡuikoesonʔouɡuidou
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Gonja à-kôà-ɲɔ́à-sáà-náà-núà-ʃéà-ʃúnùà-bùrùwáà-k͡pánàkùdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Kplang (Prang) kɔ̃ / ɛkʊ́nkɔ́áɲɔasaanáɛnʊ́eséɛsʊ́nʊ́ɛkwéapʊ́nɔ́ídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Krache (Kaakyi) kɔ́ɔ́aɲɔ́asáanáɛnʊ̂ɛsíɛ́asʊ́nɔ́kukwéak͡pʊ́nɔ́kúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Nawuri kʊ́ːʔaɲɔ́asáanáanûasíjéasúnɔ̂abᵘɾuwáakpʌ́nɔ̂ɡúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guang Nkonya ɛ̀-kʊ̃̀ (ɔ̀-kʊ̀ Northern Dialect) / ɪ̀-kʊ̀lɛ̀à-ɲɔ̀à-sàà-nàà-nùà-sìèà-sìènɔ́ɪ̀-kʷèɪ̀-kʷèbáɪ̀-dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang Awutu (Awutu-Efutu) kòméìɲɔ́èsã́ènaː́ ̀ènúìsɛ̃́ː ̀ìsɔ̃́itʃwéɛ̀pánìdù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang Cherepon àkʊ́ìɲɔ́ìsã́ìnɛ̂ìnîìsíɛ̃̀ìsúnɔ̋ìtwîìk͡púnɔ̋ìdû
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang Gua ákònyɔ́sã́nɛ̃̀nĩ́sĩ̀ɛ̀sùnɔ̃́twík͡plɔ̃́ìdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang Larteh (1)kɔ́ɲyɔ́sánɛ́núsíɛ̀súnɔ́tɕɥík͡pʋ́nɔ́dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang Larteh (2)kõɲɔ̃sãnɛ̃nũsĩɛ̃sũnɔ̃cuik͡plɔ̃du
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Western Abouré (Abure) okuèaɲùnɳànnànnnúncɪɛ̀ncʋ̀nmɔ̀kʋ̀ɛ́puálɛ́hʋ̀nóblún

Proto Language

Phonolgy

Consonants

Labial Coronal Palatalized Palatal Velar Labiovelar
Nasal*m*n
Plosive Voicless*p*t*tⁱ*c*kʷ
Voiced*b*g*gʷ
Implosive Voicless*ƙ
Voiced*ɓ*ɗ*ɠʷ
Fricative *ɸ*s
Aproximant *l̃*ɰ

*ɗ only occurs before oral vowels while l̃ only occurs before nasal vowels [16]

*c is an affricate [16]

Vowels

Proto Kwa had the vowels a, i, ɩ, u, ʊ, ã, ĩ, ɩ̃, ũ, ʊ̃ [16]

Cross high vowel harmony may of existed [16]

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ↑ MEK Dakubu (2005). "Kwa Languages". In Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN   0-08-044299-4.:
    "except at the lower levels of classification such as the Tano, Potou–Tano, and Ewe-Fon (Gbe) groups, genetic relationships among these languages are quite distant. It has never been adequately demonstrated using the comparative method that Akan, Ga, Ewe, and the Togo Mountain languages are more closely related to one another than to any other languages."
  2. ↑ 1989, slightly revised in Blench & Williamson 2000:29
  3. ↑ Williamson & Blench 2000:29
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Dumestre, Gérard. 1971. Atlas linguistique de Côte-d'Ivoire: les langues de la région lagunaire. Abidjan: Institut de Linguistique Appliquée (ILA).
  5. ↑ Heine, Bernd. 1968. Die Verbreitung und Gliedering der Togorestsprachen (Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik vol. 1). Köln: Druckerei Wienand.
  6. ↑ Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther. 1999. Ga-English dictionary. Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.
  7. 1 2 Kropp, Mary Esther. 1966. Ga, Adangme and Ewe (Lomé) with English Gloss. (Comparative African Wordlists, 2.) Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana.
  8. 1 2 3 Stewart, John M. 2004. The Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu reconstructions updated. Manuscript.
  9. ↑ Snider, Keith L. 1990. The consonants of proto-Guang. Journal of West African languages 20(1), 3-26.
  10. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2004. The Ega Language of Côte d'Ivoire: Etymologies and Implications for Classification.
  11. ↑ Heath, Jeffrey. 2019. Pere lexicon [Data set]. Zenodo. doi : 10.5281/zenodo.3354193
  12. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2007. Recovering data on Mpra [=Mpre] a possible language isolate in North-Central Ghana .
  13. ↑ Blench, Roger. 2015. The Dompo language of Central Ghana and its affinities .
  14. ↑ Capo, Hounkpati B.C. 1991. A Comparative Phonology of Gbe. Publications in African Languages and Linguistics, 14. Berlin/New York: Foris Publications & Garome, Bénin: Labo Gbe (Int).
  15. ↑ Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther (September 2012). "Towards a phonology of Proto-Kwa: onwards from Stewart's 'Potou-Akanic-Bantu'" (PDF). Institute of African Studies. Langage, Langues et Cultures d'Afrique Noire (LLACAN) [Languages and Cultures of Sub-Saharan Africa]. Accra: University of Ghana . Retrieved 2025-11-02.

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