Salinan | |
---|---|
Native to | United States |
Region | central coast California |
Ethnicity | Salinan people |
Extinct | 1958 |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | sln |
Glottolog | sali1253 |
![]() Pre-contact distribution of Salinan language |
Salinan was the indigenous language of the Salinan people of the central coast of California. It has been extinct since the death of the last speaker in 1958.
The language is attested to some extent in colonial sources such as Sitjar (1860), but the principal published documentation is Mason (1918). The main modern grammatical study, based on Mason's data and on the field notes of John Peabody Harrington and William H. Jacobsen, is Turner (1987), which also contains a complete bibliography of the primary sources and discussion of their orthography.
Two dialects are recognized, Antoniaño and Migueleño, associated with the missions of San Antonio and San Miguel, respectively. Antoniaño is "sometimes also termed Sextapay, associated with the area of the Franciscan Mission of San Antonio de Padua in Monterey County." [1] There may have been a third, Playano dialect, as suggested by mention of such a subdivision of the people, but nothing is known of them linguistically.
Salinan may be a part of the Hokan family. Edward Sapir included it in a subfamily of Hokan, along with Chumash and Seri. [2] This hypothetical classification (which has had many skeptics) found its way into several encyclopedias and presentations of language families before much supporting evidence for this subfamily had been presented, but is currently fairly well established. [3] [4]
The charts of consonants and vowels in the Salinan language:
Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive | voiceless | p | t̪ | t̠ | k | ʔ | ||
ejective | pʼ | t̪ʼ | t̠ʼ | kʼ | ||||
voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||||
Fricative | s | ʃ | x | h | ||||
Affricate | voiceless | ts | tʃ | |||||
ejective | tsʼ | tʃʼ | ||||||
Nasal | plain | m | n | |||||
glottalized | ˀm | ˀn | ||||||
Lateral | voiced | l | ||||||
glottalized | ˀl | |||||||
Trill | r | |||||||
Approximant | plain | w | j | |||||
glottalized | ˀw | ˀj |
Voiced plosives /b d ɡ/ likely came as a result of Spanish influence.
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i iː | u uː |
Close-mid | e eː | o oː |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ |
Open | a aː |
Mid vowels occurred likely due to Spanish influence. [5]
Salinan plant and animal names from Mason (1918): [6]
English gloss | Antoniaño | Migueleño | plural |
---|---|---|---|
fly | awa·´tén | a·we·te´ʽ | awaˑ´tneʟ |
bullhead fish | cat’ | ||
Lewis's woodpecker | ca´knil | cra´knil | |
bird | caˑxwe | sa·xe | ca·xten |
ground owl, gray titmouse | ska´tata | cko·´tɑtʚ | |
prairie falcon | ck’an | ck’an’ | |
crow | ckaˑk’ | cka·k’ | skaˑ´k’tenat |
snake, worm, grub | ck’ot | ck’ot | sk’o´teʟet |
gull | clot | ||
abalone | cmaiyi´k’ | ||
horned owl | cukunui´’ | cokonoi´’ | |
skunk | cuwa´’ | cowa´ | cuwa´ʽɴeʟ |
squirrel | cuˑmk’o´m’ | camko´’m | cumk’omona´neʟ |
small ducks | cu´n’cun’ | ||
fish | swan | cwa´’ɴ | cwaˑne´t |
lizard | swakaka´ | cwaˑkek’a´’ | |
gopher | e´cece | ee´cesi | |
male squirrel | emace´ | ||
pinacate | eˑts’ | ||
tarantula hawk | etskutchɑ´ten | ||
louse | tik’e´’ | i´ke | tik’eneʟ |
ant | ilka´t | ilka´t | |
Mexican bluebird | kalep’a´n | kelep’a´n | |
small birds | kats’aˑne´ʟˑ | ||
blue-crested jay | kalau | ||
house finch | kalwatcai´ | k’aluatc´a’i | |
goose, crane | ka´lakʽ | kalakʽ | kalak´ne´ʟ |
mosquito | kaca´p | ||
grasshopper | kacala´ | kaculo´ | |
Lawrence's goldfinch | kiope´ts | ||
kingfisher | k’cu´i | kitcili´tna | |
band-tailed pigeon | klau´it | ||
hare | koi’ | koʟ | kolane´ʟ |
tarantula | kocai´ye | ||
mountain quail | k’aiya´k´ | ||
red abalones | kilṭau´ | k’elṭ´u´ʽ | |
spider | la´kana | ||
gray rabbit | ʟa´ma | ||
raven | la´’ | lap’ | |
tarantula hawk | lape´ | ||
duck | leaṭ’ | helpa´ṭ’ | leaṭ’ten |
wasps, bees | lme´m’ | leme´’m | |
teal | le´ponta | ||
Gambel's sparrow | le´rporti | leˑ´rpati | |
coyote | ʟk’a´ | helk’a´ | elk’ane´ʟ; elk’a´lekten |
Canada goose | loina´ | t’lai | |
small antelope | lowe´cɑt’ | ||
rat | ma´kiʟ | mɑ´kel | |
rabbit | map’ | map’ | map’tenat; map’aˑ´nel |
eel | masau´hal | masau´wel | |
chipmunk | matse´ko | mats’e´ko’ | |
hummingbird | mɑ´ts’we´l’ | ||
antelope | mu´i’ | mu´ı̄’ | |
clams | naiyʚk’ | ||
pocket gopher | nakɑ´k | ||
young antelope | nʚtc’ | ||
elk | ac | p’ae | acte´n, astenat |
California woodpecker | pelaˑ´kˑa’ | pala·´kɑkʼ | |
two-pronged buck | paṭalti | ||
hummingbird | peˑ´lts’e | ||
ruby-crowned wren | pete´ts | ||
lark finch | pi´ukutc | ||
sucker | pʽu´lxoiʽ | ||
wildcat | sam’ | snam | |
black ant | santʚn | ||
shrike | sapele´ | ||
one-pronged buck | sektaiˑkna | ||
stinking ant | senese | ||
unidentified fish | septa´ʟ | ||
snake | senkahl | senk’oʟ | |
doe | sepo | ||
mouse | seloˑ´iʽ | ||
swallow | siata´nil | ||
cañon finch | sit | set’ | |
red-headed woodpecker | sik | ||
animal | sitaipin | ||
whip-poor-will | skalo´ | ||
sparrowhawk | skele´le | skeleˑ´le | |
blue crane | ska·´u | ||
shellfish | sk’eˑ´’n | ||
raccoon | skaiya´ʼ | s’kai´ya | skaiyana´neʟ |
rat | sk’almo´k’ | sk’almokʼ | sk’almok’oten |
green-winged teal | slipe´pʚ | ||
quail | smate·´xan | ||
bee | smo´kɑt | smo´ket | |
rattlesnake | smeˑkoi´ | smekoi´ | smekoiiten |
female skunk | smohel | ||
mole | smokok’e´ | smokike´ | |
cat | smic | ||
eagle | sai´yu | snai | saiyane´ʟ |
kangaroo rat, tusa | snaˑk | snaʽk | |
butterfly | soko´ko | soko´ko | |
spotted fawn | so´ha | ||
very small ant | sopokan | ||
red-tailed hawk | speˑk’ | spiˑk’ | |
burrowing owl | spʽoko´ʼ | ||
fox | sto’ | sto’ | |
young squirrel | sumhe | ||
bat | stamaka´la | ||
bat | suhao´ye | ||
black-shining flycatcher | swe´ho | swīˑ´yo | |
male coyote | swaa´ | ||
crane | taˑlwa·´x | ||
worm | ta´lmui | ||
nuthatch | taka´la | ||
Lawrence's goldfinch | ta´nukupel | ||
crane | tapṭe´ʟ | ||
woodpecker | tena´k | ||
male antelope | tepce´ | ||
owl | tesik’ | ṭeci´kʼ | ticik’neʟ |
pelican | tē·´u | tewe´ | |
pigeon | tikʽmo´ʽ | ||
worm | time´hai | ||
great California vulture | titc´k | te’tc’ | |
badger | t´mɑ´cɑx | ||
seal | tʽoˑ´i | ||
badger | tʽoˑ´io | ||
sea otter | t’sue | ||
whale | tʸa´i | ||
blue jay | ṭ’ai’ | ṭahi | |
flea | ṭa·yiʟ | ṭaiyeʟ’ | tayiʟtena´x |
crab | ṭaitc’aˑ´tak | ||
serpent | ṭaˑliˑye´’ | ||
puma | ṭa´’muʟ | ṭ´a’muʟ | ṭa´’multenax |
deer | ṭaa´’ | ṭaa´’p | ṭaatne´ʟ |
bat | ṭapilale | ||
turtledove | ṭaˑxwe´ne’ | ṭʽaˑxwe´n’ | |
bear | ṭaxai´’ | ṭᴀxai´’ | ṭaxai´yukten |
turtle | ṭawai | ṭawʚ´ | ṭawaiiten |
salmon | ṭetiyau´ | tʽetēyau | ṭetiyauutén |
kingbird | ṭike´ | ṭ’ike´’ | |
small frog | ṭ’iˑkolʚ´ | ||
serpent | ṭinele´ʼ | ||
grubs, worms | ṭ’iope´’ | ||
mountain lizard | ṭʽoiyelɘ´’ | ||
gray squirrel | ṭooloc | ṭoˑlo´c | ṭoolecna´neʟ |
wolf | ṭʽo·´xo | ṭoˑxo´ʼ | ṭʽoˑ´xolanel |
curved-bill thrush | tca | tca | |
Brewer's blackbird | tca´la | tcal | |
red-shafted woodpecker | tc’am’ | tc’a’ᴍɪ | |
cricket | tcʼeˑl’ | ||
blue jay | tc’ele´uʼ | ||
bat | tc’e´mtcem | ||
fish-hawk | tcikʼ | tc´iktcik | |
caterpillar | tcoana´hi | ṭaau´ | |
mottled snake | ts’aike´’ | ||
yellow-bellied woodpecker | ts’e´’ʟ | ||
owl | ts’ɘ´tʽenek’ | ||
spider | ts’ope´n | sopne´t | ts’ope´nlax |
red-winged blackbird | wakeno´ | ||
frog | wa·´kiṭ | wa´kɑṭ’ | wakiṭten; wa´kɑṭ’ṭʽa´ʟ |
bullbat | wa´lwal’ | ||
Oregon bunting | wa´tc | watc’ | |
white goose | wau | ||
blue jay, bunting | witcele´’ | wetcele´’ | |
martin | weˑtelo´’ | ||
woodpecker | we´tok | ||
mussel | xaii´k | ||
crane | xalau´’ | ||
ground tit | xane´o | ||
lizard | xakele´ | xapailʚ´’ | |
yellow-billed magpie | atce´tc | xatca´tc’ | |
roadrunner, ground cuckoo | xom | xo·´’mɪ | |
quail | ho´mlik´ | ||
red-headed vulture | xopne´l | xo·pɴe´ʟ | |
dog | xutc | xutcaˑi | xoste´n |
English gloss | Antoniaño | Migueleño | plural |
---|---|---|---|
wild oats | atʟoˑ´s | ||
bark | awu´’l | awuʟ’ | |
tule | aˑxo´ʟ | axone´ʟ | |
seed | avexte´ya | ayextel’i´ya | |
bud | ca´l | ca´ltine | |
quijara de pala | ck’ua´ | ||
large soaproot | ck’alʚ´’ | ||
clover | cpo´k’at’; cpoku´mt’a | ||
brush | cɑ´tala | ||
leaf | ctan’ | stanane´ʟ | |
blackberries | elpo´nʚ | ||
wild seeds | heˑʟka´’ | ||
hay, grass | k’aˑṭ’ | kat | k’atsane´l |
sunflower | k’a·´ciʟ | ||
tule | k’ɑ´mta’ | ||
acorn | k’a’ | kɑp’ | ka’te´ʟ |
small young oaks | ka´pitc’ | ||
large pine nut | kʽe | kʽe | |
fern root | k’ēˑ´ciapowat | ||
tuna (prickly pear) | k’eso´i’ | ||
cedar | keṭipui | keṭipoilax | |
root | ko’iʏi | ||
melon | k’olopopo´ | ||
bulb, wild potato | k’ona·´ka | ||
cacomite | kotc’e´ʟ | ||
forest | ku´katak | ||
flower | mɑkawi´ʼ | mɑkewe´ | makawili´ʼ |
milkweed | matai´’ʏi | ||
toloache | moˑnoi´’ʏi | ||
laurel | mopa´kʽ | ||
ivy | mucuelit | ||
wild grape | o·pɪs | ||
chia | pa´siʟ | pɑ´siʟ | |
post oak | p’ɑ´pex | ||
white oak | at’ | p’aˑ´’t | atne´ʟ; p’atʽne´lat |
manzanita | patʽax | patʽa´k | patʽaxtén |
live oak | askle´t | paxa´kiʟ | |
buckeye | pʚca´ʼ | ||
willow | pʚsxe´t | ||
grass | petʟ | ||
seedlings | peyexte´toʼ | ||
seaweed | powa´tka | ||
fruit | pamputen | ||
fruit | tenpute´s | ||
mescal | saxe´t | ||
alfilerillos | seneste´ʟ | ||
brush | smɑt | ||
acorn | smoʼ | ||
clover | smo´kumeʟ | ||
acorn | sxau´witʽ | ||
seeds | tana´t | ||
wicker | tana´st | ||
grains | tate´ | ||
small soaproot | tetai´ | ||
elderberries | tetɑ´pʽkoˑʟ | ||
root | tepa´s | tepa´so | |
oak | tʽio´i | ||
acorn | t’i´pi’ | ||
mescal | tʽᴍɑ | ||
grass | tʽʚma´s | ||
milkweed | tʚmaˑ´ʟ | ||
grass for baskets | tʽonawɑ´’ | ||
gooseberries | toipen | ||
flower of mescal | ṭaiya´c | ||
wood | ṭa·´ka’aṭʽ | ṭa·´kaṭa | tak’ane´ʟ |
tobacco | ṭala´’ᴍ | ṭoela´m | |
stump of tree | ṭa´pin | ṭamoina´co | |
fruit | tata | ṭaˑ´tʽoʼ | |
root | ṭepastéɴ | ||
juice | ṭetaco | ṭita´cu | |
pine nuts | tcʽo’ | tʽo’ | ṭotenʚ´l |
brush | ṭoki | ||
barsalillo | tc’e·´lak | ||
pine | tc’o’ | ||
wood for pipe | tcʽo´ʟʚ | ||
chuckberries | ts’eta´kiʟ | ||
spine | xa´ke | ||
acorn | xo´le | ||
live oak | hasli´t’ | ||
acorn | ha´siʟ |
Oak acorns were the staple food for Salinans. In Mason's The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians (see Bibliography), on pgs 118-119, the author makes an unsuccessful attempt to match Salinan names for oak species with their scientific names. He describes the following species: "(1) cxa'uwat`, a live oak with spined leaves; (2) t`io'i, a large white tree with a white acorn growing on the coast; (3) paxa'kiL, an oak with pointed leaves and a very large acorn which grows on the hills; (4) p`a'pix, an oak with serrated leaves, called by Henshaw "post oak"; (5) p`a`t, an oak with small serrated leaves and a large acorn, called by Henshaw "white oak"; (6) cmo', an oak with smooth, non-spined leaves." He also writes, "While the statement is not definite, it seems that acorns from live-oaks were preferred for mush, those of deciduous oaks for bread. Of the former three varieties were used, (1) cxau'wat', (2) t`io'i, and (3) paxa'kiL in the order of preference. Of the latter (4) p'a'pix and (5) p`a`t were used. Cmo' (6) was another oak sometimes used." In his later work, The Language of the Salinan Indians, he gives an additional Antoniaño word for an unspecified evergreen oak, (7) hasli't', and an Antoniaño word for oak saplings, ka'pitc'.
The following species of oak are prevalent in the territory of the Salinans: valley oak ( Quercus lobata), coast live oak ( Quercus agrifolia ), blue oak ( Quercus douglasii ), canyon live oak ( Quercus chrysolepis ), California scrub oak ( Quercus berberidifolia ), interior live oak ( Quercus wislizeni ) and its close relative Shreve oak ( Quercus parvula var. shrevei ), Jolon oak ( Quercus x jolonensis ), which is a hybridization of lobata x douglasii common in the vicinity of the Nacimiento, San Antonio, and Arroyo Seco river valleys), and, although it is not a true oak, the tanoak ( Notholithocarpus densifloris ). To a lesser extent, there are also locations with coast scrub oak ( Quercus dumosa ), leather oak ( Quercus durata ), California black oak ( Quercus kelloggii ), oracle oak ( Quercus x morehus ), and perhaps others. There are more prevalent species listed here than Mason's list of three live oaks and three deciduous oaks.
Local knowledge provides critical clues as to what species the Salinan names are referencing. The task is complicated by the diverse expressions of phenotypes and hybridizations in California oaks, as well as the lack of research in the topic and Mason's incomplete and erroneous information. Furthermore, it is possible that Salinan classification for oaks followed a different scheme than those of modern taxonomy.
Mason's description of evergreen oaks are more easily identified than the deciduous oaks.
(1) Cxa'uwat` is likely the coast live oak, Quercus agrifolia , which is an evergreen oak with spined leaves and has acorns that were a preferred food source among indigenous Californians.
(2) T`io'i is possibly the tanoak, Notholithocarpus densifloris , which is an evergreen oak-like species that only grows near the coast, prevalent near redwood groves in coastal canyons, where oaks tend to be less common. Tanoaks have large acorns. Most oaks are higher up on the steep Santa Lucia mountains, so having tanoaks available would make them a preferred food source during shoreline visits. As for the white coloration, this could be referring to how the leaves have whitish undersides, the young acorns have a whiter tint than many oaks, and the bark tends to be gray with white blotches.
(3) Paxa'kiL is likely the canyon live oak, Quercus chrysolepis , which is an evergreen oak with pointed leaves, a very large acorn, and grows in the higher terrain of the Santa Lucia mountains.
(7) Hasli't' is an Antoniaño term, not included in Mason's list of preferred culinary oaks. It may be a synonym for a Migueleño word; it may refer to a species uncommon or absent in Migueleño range but noticeably present in Antoniaño territory, such as the Shreve oak or coast scrub oak; or it may be an additional species like California scrub oak or a botanical concept, such as a term for the genus Quercus or sub-genus "red oak," missing in Mason's study of Migueleño Salinan vocabulary.
Although there is significant inaccuracy in Mason's list of deciduous oaks - and he admits to being unsuccessful in his attempt to match Salinan terms to oak species - his research is the singular published source listing Salinan botanical terms. Several hypotheses have been proposed to make sense of Mason's research on Salinan words for oaks.
Mason states that the two deciduous oaks principally used for making bread had serrated leaves. However, there are no serrated deciduous oaks in this region of California. It is more likely that he meant "lobate" than "serrated," in which case there are multiple species common in the area which have deciduous, lobate leaves, most notably the valley oak, the blue oak, and their hybrid, the Jolon oak.
Acorns from valley oaks and blue oaks were a major food source for Salinans, which would fit with Salinans designating two deciduous oak species for preferred culinary use. Valley oaks resemble their eastern cousins the post oak, so it is possible they are what is meant by (4) p`a'pix. Blue oaks have smaller leaves, girthier acorns, and they are a white oak, so it could be referred to by (5) p`a`t, though both valley oaks and blue oaks are technically considered "white oaks" for the color of their inner bark. Mason provides a plural form for (5) p`a`t but not for (4) p`a'pix, which suggests that either Mason simply did not record the plural form of (4) p`a'pix or that it tended to occur in a more solitary fashion than (5) p`a`t. There is a case for the latter. Valley oaks and blue oaks both occur in park-like woodlands throughout much of Salinan land, but valley oaks are much more inclined to growing alone in open space, whereas blue oaks tend to congregate close together in groves.
Mason says that (6) cmo' was a deciduous oak with smooth, non-spined leaves. Valley oaks, blue oaks, and Jolon oaks all have smooth, non-spined leaves, which would seem to fit with (6) cmo'. Again, Mason's terms are self-contradictory. (4) P`a'pix and (5) p`a`t are described as major food sources, whereas (6) cmo' was only an auxiliary source of acorns, and it is known that indigenous Californians heavily consumed valley and blue oaks, so it is improbable that (6) cmo' is an umbrella term for deciduous oaks with smooth, non-spined leaves. If smooth, non-spined leaves refers to ovate leaves, then more sense can be made of the classification. Blue oaks frequently exhibit ovate leaves, and they are deciduous, so it is possible that (6) cmo' refers to blue oaks with ovate leaves..
Under this first hypothesis:
(4) P`a'pix refers to valley oaks, which are deciduous, a preferred acorn source, have lobate leaves, tend to grow far apart, and resemble the eastern post oak.
(5) P`a`t refers to blue oaks, which are deciduous, another preferred acorn source, have smaller lobate leaves and produce girthier acorns than valley oaks, tend to grow close together in groves, and are a white oak.
(6) Cmo' refers to blue oaks with ovate leaves.
Jolon oaks, which are common on Salinan land, would possibly be classified under either (4), (5), or (6) perhaps depending on which tree they more closely matched.
Several problems arise regarding the first hypothesis. For one, there are a number of common local oak species thus far omitted, most notably the California scrub oak. Secondly, if Salinans classified blue oaks with ovate leaves separately from their lobate counterparts, then it is plausible they would also classify together the three species of deciduous, lobate-leaved oaks - valley oaks, blue oaks, and Jolon oaks - under a single name. Even though there are noticeable morphological differences between these three species, their proclivity to hybridize and morphological similarities may have given Salinans a reason to lump them together under a single term, especially if they distinguished ovate-leaved blue oaks as a separate type of oak. A second hypothesis is as follows:
(4) P`a'pix refers to the deciduous, lobate-leaved valley oaks, blue oaks, and Jolon oaks.
(5) P`a`t refers to the evergreen California scrub oak, which is characterized by its small, serrated leaves, and plentiful, large acorns, and it is a white oak. In this case, Mason would be incorrect to consider it a deciduous oak, but correct to describe its small, serrated leaves and plentiful, large acorns.
(6) Cmo' refers to ovate-leaved blue oaks and Jolon oaks.
Again, there are problems the previous hypotheses. For one, although blue oaks do frequently exhibit ovate leaves, it is also common for a single tree to exhibit both ovate and lobate leaves. It would be unusual for Salinans to treat ovate-leaved individuals as a different kind of tree, eating acorns from lobate-leaved blue oaks over those from ovate-leaved trees, especially when there is no noticeable culinary difference. Scrub oak acorns are not a preferred food source, containing higher levels of tannins [7] , so it is unlikely that (5) p`a`t would refer to scrub oaks. There are still other oak species unaccounted for in this lexicon, although it should not be seen as necessarily comprehensive. Given that his list of animals and plants is quite long, it would be strange for a major species of oak to be overlooked.
The third and fourth hypotheses posit that:
(4) P`a'pix refers to valley oaks.
(5) P`a`t refers to blue oaks.
(6) Cmu' refers to another species of oak.
In the third hypothesis, (6) cmu' could be a deciduous California black oak, though it is unlikely since their leaves are lobate and serrated. It is more likely that Mason was incorrect about cmu' being deciduous. There are several other evergreen oaks common on Salinan land. Two contendors are the California scrub oak and the interior live oak. As mentioned, scrub oak acorns are especially high in tannins and would serve as a last resort ration. Interior live oaks and their close relatives the Shreve oak are known to have smooth, ovate leaves. The fourth hypothesis proposes that:
(6) Cmu' refers to the interior live oak, and possibly also the closely-related Shreve oak - which was only treated as a separate species from the interior live oak as recently as 1980 - for often having smooth, ovate leaves. Interior live oaks are somewhat common, but their acorns are not nearly as big as the deciduous oaks. They would provide only enough acorns to act as a supplemental food source, which again coheres with Mason's description of the tree's role in Salinan life.
Moreover, Mason lists p`a`t adjacent to pat`a'k, the Salinan word for manzanita. He provides plural forms for both, whereas for many trees he does not provide a plural form. Other botanical terms for which he provides a plural form include: flowers, grass, leaves, acorns, pine nuts, cedars (which may actually mean coast redwoods rather than the California incense cedar, or perhaps includes both), tule reeds, buds, and wood. This may be suggestive of the role of the plural form in Salinan. These botanical terms all appear relatively homogeneous: a field of wildflowers, a grassland, a litter of acorns, a pile of pine nuts, a grove of redwoods, a bed of tule reeds, a cluster of buds, a pile of wood. The plural form of trees is forest, ku'katak, possibly due to usually having a mix of species. Both manzanita and blue oak tend to occur in stands or groves. Additionally, both species have an airy, branching structure as well as blue-tinted foliage. The fact they share such strong phonetic similarity suggests the Salinans had an association between their similar ecological characteristics. As an aside, the absence of such plants as chamise on Mason's list - an extremely widespread shrub on Salinan land - further shows he presented inaccurate and/or incomplete information, but there is hardly any other research on Salinan language available today.
In this fourth hypothesis, Mason would be incorrect about (6) being deciduous, but he would be correct about all three species' morphological character and their relative availability as a food source. The difference between (1-3) and (4-6) would not be evergreen vs. deciduous, but a dichtomy between acorns used for mush and acorns used for bread, as Mason stated. This hypothesis accounts for all the major species of oak on Salinan land and correctly represents their varying degrees of importance as food sources: first the stately valley oaks, second the woodlands of blue oaks, and with interior live oaks as an available supplement.
Although Mason struggled to understand what oak species correspond to what Salinan terms, his work has provided valuable information. Tenable progress and hypotheses have been made. It appears that Mason's list is not comprehensive of all oak tree names, that it instead focuses on the species with the most valuable food resources. It is probably the case that: (1) cxa'uwat` is coast live oak, (2) t`io'i is tanoak, (3) paxa'kiL is canyon live oak, (4) p`a'pix is valley oak, (5) p`a`t is blue oak, (6) cmu' is interior live oak, and (7) hasli't' remains unspecified. Mason also gives multiple words for acorn; future research is needed.
Chaparral is a shrubland plant community found primarily in California, in southern Oregon and in the northern portion of the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate and infrequent, high-intensity crown fires.
An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne in a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere; it includes some 500 species, both deciduous and evergreen. Fossil oaks date back to the Middle Eocene. Molecular phylogeny shows that the genus is divided into Old World and New World clades, but many oak species hybridise freely, making the genus's history difficult to resolve.
Quercus kelloggii, the California black oak or Kellogg oak, is an oak in the red oak section native to western North America. Although genetically separated from them for more than 20 million years, its leaves are remarkably similar in appearance to several other members of the red oak section including the red oak and the black oak found in eastern and central North America.
Quercus macrocarpa, the bur oak or burr oak, is a species of oak tree native to eastern North America. It is in the white oak section, Quercus sect. Quercus, and is also called mossycup oak, mossycup white oak, blue oak, or scrub oak. The acorns are the largest of any North American oak, and are important food for wildlife.
Live oak or evergreen oak is any of a number of oaks in several different sections of the genus Quercus that share the characteristic of evergreen foliage. These oaks are generally not more closely related to each other than they are to other oaks.
Quercus agrifolia, the California live oak, or coast live oak, is a highly variable, often evergreen oak tree, a type of live oak, native to the California Floristic Province. It may be shrubby, depending on age and growing location, but is generally a medium-sized tree. It grows west of the Sierra Nevada mountain range from Mendocino County, California, south to northern Baja California in Mexico. It is classified in the red oak section of oaks.
Quercus douglasii, known as blue oak, is a species of oak endemic to California, common in the Coast Ranges and the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is California's most drought-tolerant deciduous oak, and is a dominant species in the blue oak woodland ecosystem. It is occasionally known as mountain oak and iron oak.
The Salinan are a Native American tribe whose ancestral territory is in the southern Salinas Valley and the Santa Lucia Range in the Central Coast of California. Today, the Salinan governments are now working toward federal tribal recognition from the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
The Northern California coastal forests are a temperate coniferous forests ecoregion of coastal Northern California and southwestern Oregon.
Quercus coccifera, the kermes oak, is an oak bush in the Ilex section of the genus. It has many synonyms, including Quercus calliprinos. It is native to the Mediterranean region and Northern African Maghreb, south to north from Morocco to France and west to east from Portugal to Cyprus and Turkey, crossing Spain, Italy, Libya, Balkans, and Greece, including Crete. The Kermes Oak was historically important as the food plant of Kermes scale insects, from which a red dye called crimson was obtained. The etymology of the specific name coccifera is related to the production of red cochineal (crimson) dye and derived from Latin coccum which was from Greek κόκκος, the kermes insect. The Latin -fera means 'bearer'.
California mixed evergreen forest is a plant community found in the mountain ranges of California and southwestern Oregon.
Quercus berberidifolia, the California scrub oak, is a small evergreen or semi-evergreen shrubby oak in the white oak section of Quercus. It is a native of the scrubby hills of California, and is a common member of chaparral ecosystems.
Quercus lobata, commonly called the valley oak or roble, grows into the largest of California oaks. It is endemic to California, growing in interior valleys and foothills from Siskiyou County to San Diego County. Mature specimens may attain an age of up to 600 years. This deciduous oak requires year-round access to groundwater.
Quercus lamellosa is a species of oak (Quercus) native to the Himalaya and adjoining mountains from Tibet and Nepal east as far as Guangxi and northern Thailand, growing at altitudes of 1300–2500 m. The Lepcha of Sikkim call it book koong. It is placed in subgenus Cerris, section Cyclobalanopsis.
Salinan traditional narratives include myths, legends, tales, and oral histories preserved by the Salinan people of the central California coast.
Quercus chrysolepis, commonly termed canyon live oak, canyon oak, golden cup oak or maul oak, is a North American species of evergreen oak that is found in Mexico and in the western United States, notably in the California Coast Ranges. This tree is often found near creeks and drainage swales growing in moist cool microhabitats. Its leaves are a glossy dark green on the upper surface with prominent spines; a further identification arises from the leaves of canyon live oak being geometrically flat.
Quercus dumosa is a species of plant in the family Fagaceae, belonging to the white oak section of the oak genus (Quercus). This tree goes by the common names coastal sage scrub oak and Nuttall's scrub oak.
Quercus hemisphaerica is a species of oak native to the southeastern and south-central United States. It is in the red oak section of Quercus sect. Lobatae. It is often confused with and closely related to Quercus laurifolia, from which it differs in several key characteristics.
Quercus grisea, commonly known as the gray oak, shin oak or scrub oak, is a North American species deciduous or evergreen shrub or medium-sized tree in the white oak group. It is native to the mountains of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. It hybridises with four other oak species where the ranges overlap, the Arizona white oak (Q. arizonica), the Gambel oak (Q. gambelii), the Mohr oak (Q. mohriana) and the sandpaper oak (Q. pungens).
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link)