Shawnee people, Indigenous group from the Ohio River Valley with rich cultural heritage.
People
Shawnee (Sawanwa), an Algonquian language with few speakers remaining, preservation efforts underway.
Language
Historically in eastern U.S. (Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Pennsylvania), now primarily in Oklahoma.
The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language, spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by the Shawnee people. It was originally spoken by these people in a broad territory throughout the Eastern United States, mostly north of the Ohio River. They occupied territory in Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania.
Shawnee is closely related to other Algonquian languages, such as Mesquakie-Sauk (Sac and Fox) and Kickapoo. It has 260 speakers, according to a 2015 census,[2] although the number is decreasing. It is a polysynthetic language that is described to have freedom in word ordering.[3]
Status
Shawnee is severely threatened, as many speakers have shifted to English. The approximately 200 remaining speakers are older adults.[2] Some of the decline in usage of Shawnee resulted from the United States' assimilation program carried out by Indian boarding schools, which abused, starved, and beat children who spoke their Native languages. This treatment often extended to the family of those children as well.
Of the 4,576 citizens of the Absentee Shawnee Tribe around the city of Shawnee, Oklahoma, more than 100 are speakers. Of the 3,652 citizens of the Eastern Shawnee Tribe in Ottawa County, only a few elders are speakers. Of the 2,226 citizens of the Shawnee Tribe, or Loyal Shawnee in northeastern Oklahoma around Whiteoak, there are fewer than 12 speakers.[2] Because of the low speaker population and the percentage of elderly speakers, Shawnee is classified as an endangered language. Additionally, language development outside of the home has been limited. A dictionary and portions of the Bible translated from 1842 to 1929 were translated into Shawnee.[2]
Language revitalization
Absentee-ShawneeElder George Blanchard Sr., former governor of his tribe, teaches classes to Head Start and elementary school children, as well as evening classes for adults, at the Cultural Preservation Center in Seneca, Missouri. His work was profiled on the PBS show American Experience in 2009.[4] The classes are intended to encourage speaking Shawnee among families at home. The Eastern Shawnee have also taught language classes.[5] The Shawnee Tribe launched a language immersion program in 2020 with virtual and in-person classes.[6]
Conversational Shawnee booklets, CDs, and a Learn Shawnee Language website are available.[7][8]
Phonology
Vowels
Shawnee has six vowels,[3] three of which are high, and three are low.
In Shawnee, /i/ tends to be realized as [ɪ], and /e/ tends to be pronounced [ɛ].[3]
In (1) and (2), a near minimal pair has been found for Shawnee /i/ 'i' and /iː/ 'ii'. In (3) and (4), a minimal pair has been found for Shawnee /a/ 'a' and /aː/ 'aa'.
/k/ and /kk/ contrast in the verbal affixes -ki (which marks third person singular animate objects) and -kki (which marks third person plural animate objects).
Some speakers of Shawnee pronounce /ʃ/ more like an alveolar [s]. This pronunciation is especially common among Loyal Band Shawnee speakers near Vinita, Oklahoma.
[ʔ] and [h] are allophones of the same phoneme: [ʔ] occurs in syllable final position, while [h] occurs at the beginning of a syllable.[3]
Stress
Stress in Shawnee falls on the final syllable (ultima) of a word.
In Shawnee phonology, consonant length is contrastive. Words may not begin with vowels, and between a morpheme ending with a vowel and one starting with a vowel, a [y] is inserted. Shawnee does not allow word-final consonants and long vowels.
/k/ and /kk/ contrast in the following verbal affixes
ye-
SUB-
kkil
hide
-a
-DIR
-ki
−3S.AO
ye- kkil -a -ki
SUB- hide -DIR −3S.AO
when (I) hide him
ye-
SUB-
kkil
hide
-a
-DIR
-kki
−3P.AO
ye- kkil -a -kki
SUB- hide -DIR −3P.AO
when (I) hide them
These affixes (-ki, -kki) are object markers in the transitive animate subordinate mode. The subject is understood.
A word may not begin with a vowel. Instead, an on-glide [h] is added. For example:
There are two variants of the article -oci, meaning 'from'. It can attach to nouns to form prepositional phrases, or it can also be a pre-verb. When it attaches to a noun, it is -ooci, and when attached to a pre-verb it is -hoci.
[t] is inserted between two vowels at morpheme boundary.
As we know from the phonological rule stated above, a word may not begin with a vowel in Shawnee. From the morphophonological rule above, it can be assumed that [h]~[t].
example
-eecini(i) meaning 'Indian agent' appears as hina heecini or 'that Indian agent', and as ho-[t]eecinii-ma-waa-li, meaning 'he was their Indian agent'. The [t] of ho-[t]- fills the open slot that would otherwise have to be filled with [h].
Rule 2
V1-V2-----> V2 A short vowel preceding another short vowel at a morpheme boundary is deleted.
hina
that
+
+
-ene
-Xtimes
( > hinene)
hina + -ene
that + -Xtimes
at that time period, then
melo'kami
spring
-eke
-LOC
( > melo'kameke)
melo'kami -eke
spring -LOC
in spring
Rule 3
V:V------> V:
When a long vowel and a short vowel come together at a morpheme boundary, the short vowel is deleted.
The instrumental affix is not obligatory, but if it is present, it determines the type of transitivizing affix that can follow it, (see numbering scheme below) or by the last stem in the theme.
Shawnee has a fairly free word order, with VSO being the most common:
teki
NEG
koos
run.from
-i
-IMPER
-ma
-AO
teki koos -i -ma
NEG run.from -IMPER -AO
'run you from him' (in the negative) 'you mustn't run away from him'
SOV, SVO, VOS, and OVS are also plausible.
Grammatical categories
Parts of speech in the Algonquian languages, Shawnee included, show a basic division between inflecting forms (nouns, verbs and pronouns), and non-inflecting invariant forms (also known as particles). Directional particles (piyeci meaning 'towards') incorporate into the verb itself. Although particles are invariant in form, they have different distributions and meanings that correspond to adverbs ([hi]noki meaning 'now', waapaki meaning 'today', lakokwe meaning 'so, certainly', mata meaning 'not') postpositions (heta'koθaki wayeeci meaning 'towards the east') and interjections (ce meaning 'so!').
Case
Examples (1) and (2) below show the grammatical interaction of obviation and inverse. The narrative begins in (1) in which grandfather is the grammatical subject [+AGENT] in discourse-focus [+PROXIMATE]. In (2), grandfather remains in discourse-focus [+PROXIMATE], but he is now the grammatical object [+OBJECT]. To align grammatical relations properly in (2), the inverse marker /-ekw-/ is used in the verb stem to signal that the governor is affecting grandfather. (The prefix /ho-/ on ho-stakooli refers to 'grandfather').[2]
(1)
he-
SUB-
meci-
COMPLETED-
naat-aw'ky
much-land
-aa
-TA
-ci
−3SUB
hina
that
ni-me'soom'
1-grandfather
-θa
-PERSON
he- meci- naat-aw'ky -aa -ci hina ni-me'soom' -θa
SUB- COMPLETED- much-land -TA −3SUB that 1-grandfather -PERSON
'afterwards my grandfather received land'
(2)
wiikiwa
house
ho-
3-
staa
build
-ekw
-INV
-a
-DIR
-li
-3S.OBV
kapenalee
governor
-li
-3S.OBV
wiikiwa ho- staa -ekw -a -li kapenalee -li
house 3- build -INV -DIR -3S.OBV governor -3S.OBV
'the governor built (him) a house' (/-li/ is the obviative marker)
Since the person building the house (the governor) is disjoint from the person who the house is being built for (the grandfather), this disjunction is marked by placing one participant in the obviative. Since grandfather is the focus in this narrative, the governor is assigned the obviative marking. Grammatically, kapenal-ee (-ee- < -ile- < -ileni- 'person') is the subject who is not in discourse-focus (marked by /-li/ 3s OBVIATIVE), showing that grammatical relations and obviation are independent categories.
Similar interactions of inverse and obviation are found below. In Shawnee, third person animate beings participate in obviation, including grammatically animate nouns that are semantically inanimate.
we
then
ni-
1-
cis
fear
-h
-CAUSE
-ekw
-INV
-a
-DIR-
hina
that
weepikwa
spider
we ni- cis -h -ekw -a hina weepikwa
then 1- fear -CAUSE -INV -DIR- that spider
'then that spider scared me'
ho-
3-
waap
look
-am
-TA
-aa
-DIR
-li
-3S.OBV
kisa'θwa
sun
-li
-3S.OBV
ho- waap -am -aa -li kisa'θwa -li
3- look -TA -DIR -3S.OBV sun -3S.OBV
'he looked at the sun'
Locative affix /-eki/
The Shawnee /-eki/ meaning 'in' can be used with either gender. This locative affix cliticizes onto the preceding noun, and thus it appears to be a case ending.
tekwakhwikan
box
-eki
-in
tekwakhwikan -eki
box -in
'in a box'
msi-wikiwaap
big-house
-eki
-in
msi-wikiwaap -eki
big-house -in
'in a big house'
tθene
every
melo'kami
spring
-eki
-in
tθene melo'kami -eki
every spring -in
'every spring'
Modality
The independent and imperative orders are used in independent clauses. The imperative order involves an understood second person affecting first or third persons.
teke
NEG
ki-
2-
e'-
FUT-
memekw
run
-i
-IMPER
teke ki- e'- memekw -i
NEG 2- FUT- run -IMPER
'you mustn't run'
teki-
NEG
koos
run.from
-i
-IMPER
-ma
-AO
teki- koos -i -ma
NEG run.from -IMPER -AO
'you mustn't run away from him'
teke-
NEG
wi'θen
eat
-i
-IMPER
kola'-waapaki
early-morning
teke- wi'θen -i kola'-waapaki
NEG eat -IMPER early-morning
'you mustn't eat early in the morning'
Independent Mode: Inanimate Intransitive (II):
3s---> /-i/ ---> skwaaw-i 'it is red'
3p---> /-a/ ---> kinwaaw-a 'those are long'
Demonstrative pronouns
Refer to the examples below. Yaama meaning 'this' in examples 1 and 2 refers to someone in front of the speaker. The repetition of yaama in example 1 emphasizes the location of the referent in the immediate presence of the speaker.
(1)
yaama-
this-
kookwe-
strange-
nee
appearing
-θa
-PERSON
-yaama
-this
yaama- kookwe- nee -θa -yaama
this- strange- appearing -PERSON -this
'this stranger (the one right in front of me)'
(2)
mata-
not
yaama-
this
ha'-
TIME-
pa-skoolii
go-school
-wi
-AI
ni-oosθe'
1-grandchild
−0a
-PERSON
mata- yaama- ha'- pa-skoolii -wi ni-oosθe' −0a
not this TIME- go-school -AI 1-grandchild -PERSON
'this grandchild of mine does not go to school'
Refer to the examples below. Hina functions as a third-person singular pronoun.
hina-
3
ha'θepati
racoon
ni-[t]e-si-naa-pe
1-call-thus-IN.OBJ-1p
hina- ha'θepati ni-[t]e-si-naa-pe
3 racoon 1-call-thus-IN.OBJ-1p
'we called him (the Indian Agent) racoon'
we
now
ha'θepati
raccoon
-si
name
-θo
-PASSIVE
-hina
3
we ha'θepati -si -θo -hina
now raccoon name -PASSIVE 3
'then he (the Indian Agent) was named raccoon'
howe-si
good-AI
taakteli
doctor
-hina
3
howe-si taakteli -hina
good-AI doctor 3
'he was a good doctor'
Refer to the examples below. Hini fulfills the same functions as above for inanimate nouns. Locational and third-person singular pronominal uses are found in the following examples.
na'θaapi
even
ni-[t]aay-a
1-REDUP-go
hini
that
na'θaapi ni-[t]aay-a hini
even 1-REDUP-go that
'I would even go there'
hini-
that
h-i-si-ci-howe
[h]-say-thus-3-now
hini- h-i-si-ci-howe
that [h]-say-thus-3-now
'(when) he said that (to me)'
Person, number, and gender
Person
The choice of person affix may depend on the relative position of agent and object on the animacy hierarchy. According to Dixon,[10] the animacy hierarchy extends from first-person pronoun, second-person pronoun, third-person pronoun, proper nouns, human common nouns, animate common nouns, and inanimate common nouns.
The affixes in the verb will reflect whether an animate agent is acting on someone or something lower in the animacy scale, or whether he or she is being acted upon by someone or something lower in the animacy scale.
Number
Shawnee nouns can be singular or plural. Inflectional affixes in the verb stem that cross-reference objects are often omitted if inanimate objects are involved. Even if an inflectional affix for the inanimate object is present, it usually does not distinguish number. For example, in the TI paradigm (animate›inanimate) when there is a second or third person plural subject, object markers are present in the verb stem, but they are number-indifferent. Overt object markers are omitted for most other subjects. In the inverse situation, (animate‹inanimate) the inanimate participants are not cross-referenced morphologically.[11]
Gender
The basic distinction for gender in Shawnee is between animate actors and inanimate objects. Nouns are in two gender classes, inanimate and animate; the latter includes all persons, animals, spirits, and large trees, and some other objects such as tobacco, maize, apple, raspberry (but not strawberry), calf of[spelling?] leg (but not thigh), stomach, spittle, feather, bird's tail, horn, kettle, pipe for smoking, snowshoe.[12]
Grammatical gender in Shawnee is more accurately signaled by the phonology, not the semantics.
Nouns ending in /-a/ are animate, while nouns ending in /-i/ are inanimate.[13] This phonological criterion is not absolute. Modification by a demonstrative (hina being animate and hini being inanimate, meaning 'that') and pluralization are conclusive tests.
In the singular, Shawnee animate nouns end in /-a/, and the obviative singular morpheme is /-li/.
Shawnee inanimate nouns are usually pluralized with stem +/-ali/.
This causes animate obviative singular and inanimate plural to look alike on the surface.
example
animate obviative singular
wiskilo'θa-li bird
inanimate plural
niipit-ali my teeth
Orthography
During the 19th century a short-lived Roman-based alphabet was designed for Shawnee by the missionary Jotham Meeker. It was never widely used.[9]:36 Later, native Shawnee speaker Thomas ‘Wildcat’ Alford devised a highly phonemic and accurate orthography for his 1929 Shawnee translation of the four gospels of the New Testament, but it, too, never attained wide usage.
Vocabulary
English
Shawnee
beard
Kwenaloonaroll
general greeting (in the northeastern dialect)
Hatito
general greeting (in the southern dialect)
Ho
greetings
Bezon (general greeting)
Bezon nikanaki (general greeting spoken to a friend)
Alford, Thomas Wildcat (1929). The Four Gospels of Our Lord Jesus Christ in Shawnee Indian Language. Xenia, OH: Dr. W. A. Galloway.
Andrews, Kenneth (1994). Shawnee Grammar (Thesis). Columbia: University of South Carolina.
Costa, David J. (2001). "Shawnee Noun Plurals". Anthropological Linguistics. 43: 255–287.
Costa, David J. (2002). "Preverb Usage in Shawnee Narratives". In Wolfart, H. C. (ed.). Papers of the 33rd Algonquian Conference. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. pp.120–161.
Voegelin, Carl F. (1936). "Productive Paradigms in Shawnee". In Lowie, Robert H. (ed.). Essays in Anthropology presented to A. L. Kroeber. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp.391–403.
Voegelin, Carl F. (1938–1940). Shawnee Stems and the Jacob P. Dunn Miami Dictionary. Indiana Historical Society Prehistory Research Series. Vol.1. Indianapolis. pp.63–108, 135–167, 289–323, 345–406, 409–478.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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