Hotan

"Gosthana", "Khotan", and "Hetian" redirect here. For other uses, see He Tian (disambiguation), Khotan (disambiguation), and Gosthana (disambiguation).

Hotan خوتەن شەھىرى (Uyghur) 和田市 (Chinese) Khotan, Hetian
County-level city
Tuanjie Square
Hotan Location in Xinjiang Show map of Xinjiang Hotan Hotan (China) Show map of China Hotan Hotan (Continental Asia) Show map of Continental Asia
Coordinates: 37°07′N79°55′E / 37.117°N 79.917°E / 37.117; 79.917
Country	China
Autonomous region	Xinjiang
Prefecture	Hotan
Municipal seat	Nurbagh Subdistrict
Area [1]
• Total	465.84 km2 (179.86 sq mi)
Elevation	1,382 m (4,534 ft)
Population  (2020) [2]
• Total	501,028
• Density	1,100/km2 (2,800/sq mi)
Demographics
•  Ethnic groups	90.3% Uyghur 9.4% Han Chinese <0.3% other
• Spoken languages	Uyghur, Mandarin Chinese
Time zone	UTC+8 (China Standard [a] )
Postal code	839000
Area code	0903
GDP (Nominal) [3]	2018
– Total	¥8.274 billion $1.247 billion
– Per Capita	¥20,399 $3,076
– Growth	7.1%
License plate prefix	新R
Website	Hotan Government Website (in Chinese)

Satuq's son, Musa, began to put pressure on Khotan in the mid-10th century, and sometime before 1006 Yusuf Qadir Khan of Kashgar besieged and took the city. This conquest of Buddhist Khotan by the Muslim Turks—about which there are many colourful legends—marked another watershed in the Islamicisation and Turkicisation of the Tarim Basin, and an end to local autonomy of this southern Tarim city state. ^[20]

Some Khotanese Buddhist works were unearthed. ^{[21] [22] [23]}

The rulers of Khotan were aware of the menace they faced since they arranged for the Mogao grottoes to paint a growing number of divine figures along with themselves. Halfway in the 10th century Khotan came under attack by the Qarakhanid ruler Musa, and in what proved to be a pivotal moment in the Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin, the Karakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006. ^[24]

Islamic Khotan

Yūsuf Qadr Khān was a brother or cousin of the Muslim ruler of Kashgar and Balasagun, Khotan lost its independence and between 1006 and 1165, became part of the Kara-Khanid Khanate. Later it fell to the Kara-Khitan Khanate, after which it was ruled by the Mongols.

When Marco Polo visited Khotan in the 13th century, he noted that the people were all Muslim. He wrote that:

Khotan was "a province eight days’ journey in extent, which is subject to the Great Khan. The inhabitants all worship Mahomet. It has cities and towns in plenty, of which the most splendid, and the capital of the province, bears the same name as that of the province…It is amply stocked with the means of life. Cotton grows here in plenty. It has vineyards, estates and orchards in plenty. The people live by trade and industry; they are not at all warlike". ^{[25] [26]}

Qing period

Amban Ch´ê Ta-jên's guests festing on a terrace in Nar-Bagh, 1912

Map of Central Asia (1878) showing Khotan (near top right corner) and the Sanju Pass, Hindutash, and Ilchi passes through the Kunlun Mountains to Leh, Ladakh. The border claimed by British Raj is shown in the two-toned purple and pink band.

The Qing dynasty of China conquered the Dzungar Khanate during the final stage of the Dzungar–Qing Wars in the late 1750s. By 1760, Hotan became the territory of the Qing dynasty along with the rest of Xinjiang. ^[27] The town suffered severely during the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) against the Qing rule and again a few years later when Yaqub Beg of Kashgar made himself master of Kashgaria, ^{[28] [29]} ruling the newly founded Turkic state known at the time as Yettishar. ^{[30] [31]} However, Xinjiang was reconquered by the Qing dynasty by 1877 and was converted into a province in 1884. ^[27]

Post-Qing

Chinese troops at Khotan, 1915

Qing imperial authority collapsed in 1912. During the Republican era in China, warlords and local ethnic self-determination movements wrestled over control of Xinjiang. Abdullah Bughra, Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra, and Muhammad Amin Bughra declared themselves Emirs of Khotan during the Kumul Rebellion. Tunganistan was an independent administered region in the southern part of Xinjiang from 1934 to 1937. The territory included the oases of the southern Tarim Basin; the centre of the region was Khotan. Beginning with the Islamic rebellion in 1937, Hotan and the rest of the province came under the control of warlord Sheng Shicai. Sheng was later ousted by the Kuomintang.^{[ citation needed ]}

People's Republic of China

Shortly after the Communists won the civil war in 1949, Hotan was incorporated into the People's Republic of China.

In 1983/4, the urban area of Hotan was administratively split from the larger Hotan County, and from then on governed as a county-level city. ^{[1] [32]}

On July 11, 2006, the townships of Jiya and Yurungqash (Yulongkashi) in Lop County and Tusalla (Tushala) in Hotan County were transferred to Hotan City. ^[1]

Following the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, ethnic tensions rose in Xinjiang and in Hotan in particular. As a result, the city has seen occasional bouts of violence. In June 2011, Hotan opened its first passenger-train service to Kashgar, which was established as a special economic zone following the riots. In July of the same year, a bomb and knife attack occurred on the city's central thoroughfare. In June 2011, authorities in Hotan Prefecture sentenced Uyghur Muslim Hebibullah Ibrahim to ten years imprisonment for selling "illegal religious materials". ^{[33] [34]} In June 2012, Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 was hijacked en route from Hotan to Ürümqi.

In a report from the Uyghur American Association, in June 2012, notice was said to be given that police planned to undertake a search of every residence in Gujanbagh (Gujiangbage), Hotan. Hotan is the last municipality in Xinjiang with a majority Ugyhur presence in the core of the city. The UAA viewed this as an attempt to systematically intimidate the Uyghur population in Hotan. ^{[35] [ better source needed ]}

The Sultanim Cemetery ( 37°07′02″N79°56′04″E / 37.11722°N 79.93444°E / 37.11722; 79.93444 ) in central Hotan was a historical Uyghur graveyard that also included a religious shrine. According to a 2019 interview by the Uyghur Human Rights Project, the cemetery entombed four commanders of Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, who conquered the city around 960 CE and spread Islam. Due to space limitations after over a thousand years of burials, multiple bodies had to reuse the same grave, and additionals layers were dug underneath old ones. ^[36] Between 2018 and 2019, the cemetery was demolished and the western part of the land turned into a parking lot. ^{[37] [38] [39] [40]}

Geography and climate

Collecting jade in the White Jade River near Hotan in 2011

Hotan has a temperate zone, cold desert climate (Köppen BWk), with a mean annual total of only 36.5 millimetres (1.44 in) of precipitation falling on 17.3 days of the year. Due to its southerly location in Xinjiang just north of the Kunlun Mountains, during winter it is one of the warmest locations in the region, with average high temperatures remaining above freezing throughout the year. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) in January to 25.8 °C (78.4 °F) in July, and the annual mean is 13.03 °C (55.5 °F). The diurnal temperature variation is not large for a desert, averaging 11.8 °C (21.2 °F) annually. Although no month averages less than half of possible sunshine, the city only receives 2,587 hours of bright sunshine annually, which is on the low end for Xinjiang; monthly percent possible sunshine ranges from 50% in March to 75% in October.

Hotan
Uyghur name
Uyghur	خوتەن‎
Transcriptions Latin Yëziqi Xoten Yengi Yeziⱪ Hotən SASM/GNC Hotan Siril Yëziqi Хотән

Climate data for Hotan, elevation 1,375 m (4,511 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–2010)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	20.5 (68.9)	22.0 (71.6)	30.6 (87.1)	34.6 (94.3)	37.6 (99.7)	39.8 (103.6)	41.1 (106.0)	40.2 (104.4)	35.9 (96.6)	30.0 (86.0)	24.7 (76.5)	18.3 (64.9)	41.1 (106.0)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	1.2 (34.2)	7.3 (45.1)	16.7 (62.1)	24.1 (75.4)	28.1 (82.6)	31.2 (88.2)	32.9 (91.2)	31.6 (88.9)	27.6 (81.7)	21.0 (69.8)	12.1 (53.8)	3.4 (38.1)	19.8 (67.6)
Daily mean °C (°F)	−3.8 (25.2)	1.9 (35.4)	10.6 (51.1)	17.6 (63.7)	21.6 (70.9)	24.8 (76.6)	26.4 (79.5)	25.2 (77.4)	21.0 (69.8)	14.0 (57.2)	5.7 (42.3)	−1.7 (28.9)	13.6 (56.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	−7.9 (17.8)	−2.8 (27.0)	5.1 (41.2)	11.8 (53.2)	15.8 (60.4)	19.3 (66.7)	21.0 (69.8)	20.0 (68.0)	15.5 (59.9)	8.0 (46.4)	0.8 (33.4)	−5.7 (21.7)	8.4 (47.1)
Record low °C (°F)	−21.0 (−5.8)	−19.3 (−2.7)	−7.0 (19.4)	−0.2 (31.6)	4.3 (39.7)	9.5 (49.1)	12.2 (54.0)	10.2 (50.4)	4.3 (39.7)	−2.1 (28.2)	−12.3 (9.9)	−19.3 (−2.7)	−21.0 (−5.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	1.9 (0.07)	2.1 (0.08)	3.1 (0.12)	3.4 (0.13)	7.3 (0.29)	10.4 (0.41)	6.1 (0.24)	6.0 (0.24)	4.5 (0.18)	1.2 (0.05)	1.1 (0.04)	1.5 (0.06)	48.6 (1.91)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	2.6	1.4	0.9	1.4	2.4	3.7	3.2	2.2	1.2	0.3	0.5	1.8	21.6
Average snowy days	5.0	2.6	0.6	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.6	3.8	12.6
Average relative humidity (%)	53	42	29	27	33	36	40	42	41	37	41	53	40
Mean monthly sunshine hours	175.4	176.0	208.5	225.0	263.8	263.2	246.0	231.0	240.4	267.3	222.4	183.2	2,702.2
Percent possible sunshine	57	57	55	57	60	60	56	56	66	79	74	62	62
Source: China Meteorological Administration [41] [42] [43]

Administrative divisions

Map of Hotan (labeled as HO-TIEN (HO-T'IEN) (KHOTAN)) and surrounding region from the International Map of the World (USATC, 1971)

The city includes four subdistricts, three towns, five townships and two other areas: ^{[1] [44] [45]}

Name	Simplified Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Uyghur (UEY)	Uyghur Latin (ULY)	Administrative division code	Notes
Subdistricts
Nurbagh Subdistrict (Nurbag)	努尔巴格街道 (奴尔巴格街道 [46] )	Nǔ'ěrbāgé Jiēdào	نۇرباغ كوچا باشقارمىسى	nurbagh kocha bashqarmisi	653201001
Gujanbagh Subdistrict	古江巴格街道	Gǔjiāngbāgé Jiēdào	گۇجانباغ كوچا باشقارمىسى	gujanbagh kocha bashqarmisi	653201002
Gulbagh Subdistrict	古勒巴格街道	Gǔlèbāgé Jiēdào	گۈلباغ كوچا باشقارمىسى	gülbagh kocha bashqarmisi	653201003
Narbagh Subdistrict	纳尔巴格街道	Nà'ěrbāgé Jiēdào	نارباغ كوچا باشقارمىسى	narbagh kocha bashqarmisi	653201004
Towns
Laskuy Town	拉斯奎镇	Lāsīkuí Zhèn	لاسكۇي بازىرى	laskuy baziri	653201100
Yurungqash Town [47]	玉龙喀什镇	Yùlóngkāshí Zhèn	يۇرۇڭقاش بازىرى	yurungqash baziri	653201101
Tusalla Town	吐沙拉镇	Tǔshālā Zhèn	تۇساللا بازىرى	tusalla baziri	653201102	formerly Tusalla Township (تۇساللا يېزىسى, 吐沙拉乡)
Townships
Shorbagh Township	肖尔巴格乡	Xiào'ěrbāgé Xiāng	شورباغ يېزىسى	shorbagh yëzisi	653201200
Ilchi Township	伊里其乡	Yīlǐqí Xiāng	ئىلچى يېزىسى	Ilchi yëzisi	653201201
Gujanbagh Township	古江巴格乡	Gǔjiāngbāgé Xiāng	گۇجانباغ يېزىسى	gujanbagh yëzisi	653201202
Jiya Township	吉亚乡	Jíyà Xiāng	جىيا يېزىسى	jiya yëzisi	653201204
Aqchal Township	阿克恰勒乡	Ākèqiàlè Xiāng	ئاقچال يېزىسى	Aqchal yëzisi	653201205

Others:

• Beijing Industrial Park (北京工业园区), Hotan City Jinghe Logistics Park (和田市京和物流园区)

Demographics

A mosque in Hotan

Hotan is largely dominated by the Uyghurs, and as of 2015, 311,050 of the 348,289 residents of the county were Uyghur, 35,897 were Han Chinese and 1,342 were from other ethnic groups. ^[48]

In 1940, Owen Lattimore quoted the population of Khotan to be estimated as 26,000. ^[49]

In 1998 the urban population was recorded at 154,352, 83% of which were Uyghurs, and 17% were Han Chinese. ^[50]

In 1999, 83.01% of the population was Uyghur and 16.57% of the population was Han Chinese. ^[51]

In the 2000 census, the population was recorded as 186,123. In the 2010 census figure, the figure had risen to 322,300. The increase in population is partly due to boundary changes. ^[52]

Transportation

Air

Hetian Kungang Airport (IATA: HTN) serves the city. It serves regional flights to Ürümqi. Originally a military use airport, it was expanded significantly in 2002 to accommodate higher passenger volumes. It is located 12 km (7.5 mi) south of the city proper.

Road

Locals at a busy Hotan market

Hotan is served by China National Highway 315, which runs along the southern Tarim Basin from Ruoqiang to Kashgar, and the Trans-Taklamakan Desert Highway, which run north to Luntai. An expressway is being built between Hotan and Karakax County (Moyu) as of 2014.

Rail

Hotan is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Kashgar–Hotan Railway, which opened to freight traffic in December 2010, and passenger service in June 2011. The railway station was constructed by a company under the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, and is located in the town of Lasqi (拉斯奎) northwest of the city proper. Passenger train service on this line is limited, with only one train per day, local service 5828/5825, linking the city with Kashgar (8~ hours) and Ürümqi (~34 hours).

Buses

Regular bus services link Hotan with Kashgar. There is also an express bus to Aksu via the 430 km (270 mi) 'Hotan-Aksu Cross-Desert Highway' which was opened in 2007, travels alongside the intermittent Hotan River, and which takes about 5 or 6 hours. This same bus then goes on to Urumchi taking a total of about 21 hours from Hotan. ^[53]

Economy

Light coloured or "Mutton fat" jade for sale at Hotan Jade Market

As of 1885 ^[update] , there was about 100,000 acres (662,334 mu ) of cultivated land in Khotan. ^[54]

Nephrite jade

Chinese historical sources indicate that Hotan was the main source of the nephrite jade used in ancient China. For several hundred years, until they were defeated by the Xiongnu in 176 BCE, the trade of Khotanese jade into China was controlled by the nomadic Yuezhi. The Chinese still refer to the Yurungkash as the White Jade River, alluding to the white jade recovered from its alluvial deposits. The light-colored jade is called "Mutton fat" jade. Most of the jade is now gone, with only a few kilos of good quality jade found yearly. Some is still mined in the Kunlun Mountains to the south in the summer, ^[55] but it is generally of poorer quality than that found in the rivers. ^{[56] [57]}

Fabrics and carpets

Silk weaving in Hotan

Khotanese textiles were mentioned by Xuanzang, who visited the oasis in 644 CE. In his Biography it is stated: "It produced carpets and fine felt, and the felt-makers also spun coarse and fine silk." ^[58]

Ancient Chinese-Khotanese relations were so close that the oasis emerged as one of the earliest centres of silk manufacture outside China. There are good reasons to believe that the silk-producing industry flourished in Hotan as early as the 5th century. ^[59] According to one story, a Chinese princess given in marriage to a Khotan prince brought to the oasis the secret of silk-manufacture, "hiding silkworms in her hair as part of her dowry", probably in the first half of the 1st century CE. ^{[60] [61]} It was from Khotan that the eggs of silkworms were smuggled to Iran, reaching Justinian I's Constantinople in 551. ^[62]

Khotanese silks on display in shop

Silk production is still a major industry employing more than a thousand workers and producing some 150 million metres of silk annually. Silk weaving by Uyghur women is a thriving cottage industry, some of it produced using traditional methods. ^[55]

Atlas is the fabric used for traditional Uyghur clothing worn by Uyghur women. It is soft, light and graceful tie-dyed silk fabric. It comes various colors, the brighter and rich colors are for small children to young ladies. The gray and dark colors are for elderly women.

The oldest piece of kilim which we have any knowledge was obtained by the archaeological explorer Aurel Stein; a fragment from an ancient settlement near Hotan, which was buried by sand drifts about the fourth century CE. The weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims.

Hotanese pile carpets are still highly prized and form an important export. ^{[63] [64]}

Notable persons

• Islam Akhun
• Muhammad Amin Bughra
• Nur Ahmadjan Bughra
• Abdullah Bughra

Gallery

• 
  Market in Hotan
• 
  Uyghur people at Sunday market
• 
  Carpet weaving in Hotan
• 
  Entrance to the Khotan Jade Market Center
• 
  Entrance to the Hotan Cultural Museum
• 
  Local jade displayed in the Hotan Cultural Museum lobby.
• 
  Map of the region including Khotan (Ilchi) (1893)
• 
  Map including Hotan (Ho-t'ien, Khotan) (DMA, 1983)

See also

• Atlas silk
• Dandan Oilik
• Hotan Cultural Museum
• Khatana
• Kingdom of Khotan
• Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Notes

1. Locals in Xinjiang frequently observe UTC+6 (Xinjiang Time), 2 hours behind Beijing.
2. From map: "DELINEATION OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MUST NOT BE CONSIDERED AUTHORITATIVE".

References

Citations

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34. Qiao Long; Luisetta Mudie (19 June 2012). "Uyghur Jailed Over Religious Materials". Translated by Luisetta Mudie. Radio Free Asia . Retrieved 22 January 2020. Authorities in the city of Hotan in the ethnically troubled Xinjiang region have handed a 10-year jail term to a Uyghur man convicted of selling "illegal religious materials" ahead of a sensitive anniversary. The sentence was passed on Sunday by the Hotan Municipal People's Court on Hebibullah Ibrahim, the People's Daily online news site reported.
35. "Notice informs locals of mandatory residence searches in Hotan community; police reserve the right to "use force" to enter homes". Uyghur American Association. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
36. Bahram K. Sintash (October 2019). "Demolishing Faith: The Destruction and Desecration of Uyghur Mosques and Shrines" (PDF). Uyghur Human Rights Project . pp. 24–25. Retrieved 11 August 2020. The Sultanim Cemetery has a history of over 1,000 years. King Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan of the Kara-Khanid Khanate (999–1211) conquered Hotan (the Buddhist Kingdom Udun at that time), and spread Islam around 960 AD. During the conquest, four Kara-khan commanders, including Prince Sultan Kilich Khan, were killed and Muslims buried them at this location. Since then, the cemetery has been known as Sultanim Maziri (My Sultan Shrine) and became one of the most important cemeteries among Uyghur Muslims who have paid their respects here for over 1,000 years. In the center, the four commanders' graves were still there until China completely bulldozed the entire cemetery in 2019. Many religious leaders, scholars and other important people in Hotan's far and recent history have been buried in this cemetery.
37. Matt Rivers (3 January 2020). "More than 100 Uyghur graveyards demolished by Chinese authorities, satellite images show". CNN . Retrieved 11 August 2020. The Sultanim Cemetery in the center of Hotan City is one of the most famous ancient cemeteries in Xinjiang. It was destroyed between January to March 2019.
38. Fred Hiatt (3 November 2019). "In China, every day is Kristallnacht". Washington Post . Retrieved 10 August 2020. Before After
    Cemetery demolished
    The site of Sultanim cemetery in Hotan, Xinjiang, in December, 2018 and March 2019.
39. Kurban Niyaz; Joshua Lipes (1 May 2020). "Xinjiang Authorities Construct Parking Lot Atop Historic Uyghur Cemetery". Radio Free Asia . Retrieved 5 May 2020.
40. Asim Kashgarian (1 December 2019). "US: China Targets Uighur Mosques to Eradicate Minority's Faith". Voice of America . Retrieved 11 August 2020. 37°7′2.13″N 79°56′2.96″E
    Satellite imagery with a comparative analysis of Sultanim Cemetery in Hotan city, in China's northwest Xinjiang province.
41. 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration . Retrieved 10 October 2023.
42. "Experience Template" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration . Retrieved 10 October 2023.
43. 中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000年）. China Meteorological Administration. Archived from the original on 2013-09-21.
44. 2018年统计用区划代码和城乡划分代码：和田市 [2018 Statistical Area Numbers and Rural-Urban Area Numbers: Hotan City] (in Simplified Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China. 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2019. 统计用区划代码 名称 653201001000 努尔巴格街道办事处 653201002000 古江巴格街道办事处 653201003000 古勒巴格街道办事处 653201004000 纳尔巴格街道办事处 653201100000 拉斯奎镇 653201101000 玉龙喀什镇 653201102000 吐沙拉镇 653201200000 肖尔巴格乡 653201201000 伊里其乡 653201202000 古江巴格乡 653201204000 吉亚乡 653201205000 阿克恰勒乡 653201401000 北京工业园区 653201402000 和田市京和物流园区
45. 和田市概况. 和田市人民政府网 (in Simplified Chinese). 12 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2019. 辖6乡2镇，4个街道办事处和1个工业园区
46. 奴尔巴格街道. 和田市人民政府网 (in Simplified Chinese). 25 September 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
47. huaxia, ed. (17 September 2020). "Full Text: Employment and Labor Rights in Xinjiang". Xinhua News Agency . Retrieved 20 September 2020. Yusan Hasan from Yurungqash Town, Hotan City
48. 3-7 各地、州、市、县(市)分民族人口数 (in Simplified Chinese). شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى新疆维吾尔自治区统计局 Statistic Bureau of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. 15 March 2017. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
49. Owen Lattimore (1940). "Inner Asian frontiers of China". New York: American Geographical Society. p. 157 – via Internet Archive. Khotan, 1600 sq. km., city population 26,000
50. Stanley W. Toops (15 March 2004). "The Demography of Xinjiang". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Routledge. pp. 256–257. ISBN   978-0765613189.
51. Morris Rossabi, ed. (2004). Governing China's Multiethnic Frontiers (PDF). University of Washington Press. p. 180. ISBN   0-295-98390-6.
52. "HÉTIÁN SHÌ (County-level City)". City Population.
53. Harper et al (2009), p. 840.
54. Herold J. Wiens (November 1966). "Cultivation Development and Expansion in China's Colonial Realm in Central Asia". The Journal of Asian Studies . 26 (1): 75. doi: 10.2307/2051832 . JSTOR   2051832. S2CID   162339064.
55. Bonavia, Judy. The Silk Road: Xi'an to Kashgar. Revised by Christopher Baumer (2004), pp. 307-308. Odyssey Publications. ISBN   962-217-741-7.
56. Marc Aurel Stein. (1907) Ancient Khotan: Detailed Report of Archaeological Explorations in Eastern Turkestan. Oxford. Pages 132-133.
57. Laufer, Berthold. Jade: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion. (1912) Reprint: Dover Publications, New York, N.Y. (1974), pp. 24, 26, 291-293, 324. ISBN   0-486-23123-2.
58. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Śramaṇa Huili and Shi Yancong. Translated by Li Rongxi. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. (1995), p. 163. ISBN   1-886439-00-1.
59. Whitfield, Susan. The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. Serindia Publications Inc., 2004. ISBN   1-932476-12-1. Page 47.
60. Hill (2015), Vol. II, pp. 1-2. "Appendix A: Introduction of Silk Cultivation to Khotan."
61. Sarah Underhill Wisseman, Wendell S. Williams. Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials . Routledge, 1994. ISBN   2-88124-632-X. Page 131.
62. "From Khotan, silk culture is believed to have passed by way of Kashmir to India and then westwards into central Asia and Persia". Quoted from Chambers's Encyclopaedia, Oxford University Press, 1950, article "Silk".
63. Bennett, Ian. Rugs & Carpets of the World. (1978). Ferndale Edition (1981). Quarto Publishing, London, pp.182-189. ISBN   0-905746-24-4.
64. "Khotan rug - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-04-06.

Sources

• Harper, Damian et al. (2009). Lonely Planet China: 11th Edition. Lonely Planet. ISBN   978-1-74104-866-7.
• Hill, John E. (1988). "Notes on the Dating of Khotanese History". Indo-Iranian Journal. 31 (3): 179–190. doi:10.1163/000000088790083016. S2CID   161410483. Updated version of this article is available for free download (with registration) at: independent.academia.edu
• Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC − AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden. ISBN   90-04-05884-2.
• Legge, James 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Reprint: New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. 1965.
• Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. 2000. The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson. London. 2000.
• Montell, Gösta, Sven Hedin's Archaeological Collections from Khotan: Terra-cottas from Yotkan and Dandan-Uiliq, The Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 7 (1936), pp. 145–221.
• Montell, Gösta, Sven Hedin's Archaeological Collections from Khotan II (appendix by Helmer Smith (pp. 101–102)), The Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 10 (1938), pp. 83–113.
• Puri, B. N. Buddhism in Central Asia, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 1987. (2000 reprint).
• Stein, Aurel M. 1907. Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford. dsr.nii.ac.jp 1907. Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford. ^[1] Ancient Khotan : vol.1 Ancient Khotan : vol.2
• Stein, Aurel M. 1921. Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980. dsr.nii.ac.jp
• 1904 Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan, London, Hurst and Blackett, Ltd. Reprint Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 2000 Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan : vol.1
• Watters, Thomas 1904–1905. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India. London. Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint: Delhi. Mushiram Manoharlal. 1973.
• Yu, Taishan. 2004. A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 131 March 2004. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.

External links

• Official government site (in Chinese)
• Silk Road Seattle - University of Washington (The Silk Road Seattle website contains many useful resources including a number of full-text historical works)
• Site devoted to the Buddhism of Khotan with a copy of Sir Aurel Stein's map of the Tarim Basin and Khotan region
• Satellite image of region which can be enlarged Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine
• China: Taklamakan - Desert With No Ocean Underground
• Bealby, John Thomas (1911). "Khotan"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). p. 781.
• "Khotan", Encyclopaedia Iranica Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica

1. M. A. Stein – Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books at dsr.nii.ac.jp