The Dzungar Khanate (Mongolian:ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨᠭᠠᠷᠣᠯᠣᠰЗүүнгарУлс),also known as the Zunghar Khanate or Junggar Khanate (sometimes known as Western Mongolia),[5] was the last Nomadic empire[6] of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent,it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to Tibet in the south,and from present-day west of Mongolia and the Great Wall of China in the east to present-day Kazakhstan in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern Xinjiang,also called Dzungaria.
"Dzungar" is a compound of the Mongolian word jegün (züün),meaning "left" or "east" and γar meaning "hand" or "wing".[9] It was also referred as Western Mongolia,in contrast to the Northern Yuan in the east.[5]
The region was separately described in contemporary European sources as the Kingdom of the Eleuths,from an infelicitous transcription of the name "Oirats" by French missionaries.[10]
The Oirats were originally from the area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Qutuqa Beki, submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208, and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War, the Four Oirat (Choros, Torghut, Dörbet, and Khoid) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder to seize the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression.[11] In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute, which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the Tumed.[12]
However, the Oirats began to resist Northern Yuan rule. In which Eselvei Khya of the Khoid battled the armies of Ordos Mongols and the Chahars.[13] Later, Kharkhul rebelled against the Khalkhas and repelled them.[14] The Oirats soon started an independence war against the Khalkhas and the Kazakhs. They defeated a Khalkha–Kazakh coalition and raided deep into Sighnaq in 1604.[15] In 1608, the Oirats defeated another Kazakh force and repelled an invading Khalkha army.[16] From 1609–1616, the Oirats devastated the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz, subjugating them in the process.[17]
In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats, Khara Khula and Mergen Temene, attacked Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha. They were defeated, and Khara Khula lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all-out war between Ubashi Khong Tayiji and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubashi Khong Tayiji was killed, and the Oirats declared independence at the Battle of Irtysh River.[18]
In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Khoshut chief Chokhur and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers; Güshi Khan and Kondolon Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to the Tobol River, attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the Nogai Horde, which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded the Kalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend.[19]
In 1632, the Gelug sect in Qinghai was being repressed by the Khalkha Choghtu Khong Tayiji, so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai, which resulted in the defeat of a 30,000-strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu in 1637. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the 5th Dalai Lama the title of the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion. He then claimed the title of Khan, the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the Khoshut Khanate. Among those involved was Kharkhul's son, Erdeni Batur, who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and was sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper Emil River south of the Tarbagatai Mountains.[20]
The Dzungars invaded the Kazakh Khanate in 1635, capturing their khan, Jangir in the process.[21] Erdeni Batur later continued his invasions in 1640,[22] 1643[23] and 1646, further devastating the Kazakh Khanate and subjugating their people.[24] He also established Ghulja as the capital city, naming it Khobak Sari in which he built monastaries,[25] and buildings to populate it.[26] He also established relations with the Tsardom of Russia, granting them rights to salt mines and trade. In which allowed the Russians to settle and create outposts, as well as a prosperous economy between the two nations.[20] His rule ended in 1653, at his death in the same year. Before this he had also requested the Khoshut Khanate to aid him in their war against the Kazakhs, which they sent Galdamba to defeat Jangir at Battle of Turkistan and Bukharans at Battle of the Chu and Talas river.[27] Which consolidated the border of the Dzungar Khanate in the west from Talas River to Ayagöz river.[28]
In 1653, Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half-brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667, he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.[26]
Sengge's younger brother Galdan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644, he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama who had died the previous year. In 1656, he left for Tibet, where he received education from Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. In 1671, The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. [25] In 1676, Galdan defeated Chechen near Sayram Lake.[29] Galdan then married Sengge's wife, Anu-Dara, the granddaughter of Ochirtu Khan, he came into conflict with his grandfather-in-law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Chokhur Ubashi, who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in Galdan's domination of the Oirats. In the next year, the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshogtu Khan to him.[25]
Mongol tribal leader (Zaisang, 宰桑) from Ili and other regions, with his wife. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.
From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas. The Khojas were NaqshbandiSufis who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad or from the Rashidun caliphs. By the reign of Sultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other, and they passed down their mutual hatred to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son, who ruled for only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja. Afaq fled to Tibet, where the 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan.[30]
In 1679, Galdan led 30,000 men to Turpan and Hami and soon in 1680, Galdan led 120,000 men into the Yarkent Khanate and conquered it.[31] They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son, Babak Sultan, died in the resistance against the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan.[32]
Commoner from Ili region, with his wife. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.
In 1681, the invasion by Galdan Boshugtu Khan started with Galdan's forces' attacking Jetisu and South Kazakhstan, where Galdan failed to take Sayram in 1681 and 1683.[33] In 1684, the Dzungars seized Sayram, Tashkent, and more.[34] After that Galdan subjugated the Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the Fergana Valley.[35] The Dzungars established dominion over the Baraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba Tatars to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars.[36] He also recaptured the region of Jetisu, which were lost to the Kazakhs during the Succession dispute in 1670.[37]
Khalkha war (1687–1688)
Dzungar Khanate before Galdan's invasion of Khalkha in 1688
The Oirats had established peace with the Khalkha Mongols since Ligdan Khan died in 1634, and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the Qing dynasty. However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj, but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan, who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians, who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba KhutuktuZanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor. Leading to The First Dzungar-Qing War.[25]
Qing Dzungar wars from 1688 to 1757Military camp of the Chinese Emperor at Kherlen River during the campaign of 1696
Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near the western headwaters of the Liao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River. Galdan's wife, Anu, was killed, and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697, he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.[25]
Chagatai rebellion (1693–1705)
Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan in the Yarkent Khanate. The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty, Khanate of Bukhara, and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad successfully attacked the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately, Afaq Khoja reappeared and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son, Yahiya Khoja, was enthroned, but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatai ruler, Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of Hami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the Qing dynasty. In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami.[38]
Tsewang Rabtan's campaigns against the Kazakhs
In 1698, Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Lake Tengiz and Turkistan, and the Dzungars controlled Jetisu and Tashkent until 1745.[7] The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia.[39] They further invaded the Kazahs in 1708, but were soon repelled by the Kazakhs in 1711–1712.[40][41] However, they managed to counterattack with Tsewang Rabtan sending his two sons, Lobsangsür and Galdan Tseren, recovering their lost territories.[42]
Having achieved short-term foreign policy stability on the southern and eastern borders of Dzungaria, Tsavan-Rabdan sent his troops to the Kazakh steppes in 1716. The Oirat army under the command of Tseren Dondook defeated the Kazakh militia and captured a significant number of prisoners.[43] In the same year, Kazakh troops attacked the nomads of the Choros on the Ili River, capturing Lieutenant Markel Trubnikov.[44]
Dzungar Khanate at its territorial extent after its conquest of Tibet in 1717
In 1714, Tsewang Rabtan continued his war against the Qing dynasty by sacking Hami.[49] Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tseren Dhondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate in 1717, deposed Yeshe Gyatso, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Kangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa.[50] A second and larger expedition was sent by the Kangxi Emperor, which expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.[51] The people of Turpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief, Emin Khoja, and defected to the Qing dynasty.[52]
Galdan Tseren (1727–1745)
Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tsere, by killing his half-brother Lobsangsür. He continued the war against the Kazakhs and the Khalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the Khoton Lake. The next year, however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near Erdene Zuu Monastery. In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to the Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into Gansu, where they settled in Guazhou. In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory.[53]
Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749, Galden Tseren's son Lama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother, Tsewang Dorji Namjal. He was overthrown by his cousin Dawachi and the Khoid noble Amursana, but they too fought over control of the khanate.
As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives, ruling the Dörbet and Bayad, defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of Kashgar, rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of Yarkand, also rebelled but was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of Aksu. Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in Khotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation.
In the spring of 1755, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. He presented his invasion as benevolent, and aimed at ending the sufferings of the Dzungars, while ascribing their misery to themselves:[54]
"Alas, you Dzungars, you are of the same ilk as the Mongols, aren’t you? Why did you separate from them? (...) People stood there with their mouths open because of the misery. I was anxious that your misery came to a standstill. And I hope that it will not — with my help — last till the next morning (...) If Heaven wants to strengthen somebody, people cannot injure him, even if they want his downfall. ...You want to honour the Yellow Doctrine and pray to Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. But in your hearts, you are like man-eating Rakshas. Therefore you were unable to escape from your self incurred retribution with your lives when your crimes were at the lowest [moral level] and your wickedness reached a zenith"
The Qing army met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days.[56] The Chinese army, supplemented on the way by Muslim and renegade Dzungar troops, surprised Dawachi at the site of Borotola in June 1755, about 300 li from Ili.[57] Dawachi had about 10,000 troops and retreated to Mount Keteng, about 80 li from Ili, while sending messengers for reinforcements, but the messengers were intercepted by the Chinese. The Qing army was able to surprise and capture Dawachi's army at the camp, and a charge was led by the Dzungar renegade Ayusi and 20 of his men, who stormed the camp and where able to conduct about 8,000 prisoners to the Chinese camp (an event depicted in the Qing painting "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola").[57] Only 2,000 soldiers escaped with Dawachi at their head.[57] Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by the Uyghur leader Khojis, beg of Uchturpan, at the request of the Chinese, and delivered to the Qing.[58]
The Dzungar army of Dawachi at Gädän-Ola. Painting by Jesuit painter at the Qing court, Ignatius Sichelbart, 1761 (detail).
Surrender of Dawachi (1755)
Dawachi surrendered to the Qing general Zhaohui.[58] The scene was immortalized in the painting "Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili" by the Jesuit court painter Ignatius Sichelbart. Dawachi was taken to Beijing, but was pardoned by the Emperor. Together with his captor Khojis, he was made a Prince, and "awarded banner privileges".[57]
Qing general Zhaohui (on horse) receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili in 1755. Painting by Jesuit painter at the Qing court, Ignatius Sichelbart, 1761 (detail).
Amursana's rebellion (1755–1757)
Dzungar partisans of Amursana, in the Battle of Khorgos against Qing China (1758). Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.
After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of the four Oirat tribes, but Amursana, who had been an ally of the Qing against Dawachi, wanted to rule with gaining the title Khan and rule over the Dzungars. Instead, the Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the Khoid. Amursana soon started to gather troops while he also delayed his formal submission to the nation. This led to the Qianlong Emperor sending the Khalkha prince, Erinchindorj and Bandi to arrest Amursana and bring him to the Emperor in Chengde. However, Amursana fled to the Irtysh.[60]
In the summer, Amursana, along with Mongol leader Chingünjav, led a revolt against the Qing.[61] Amursana was defeated in the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, in which Chinese general, Zhaohui attacked the Dzungars at night in present Wusu.[62] Unable to defeat the Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the Kazakhs. However, he later fled to the Russians, as Ablai Khan attempted to betray him.[6] Amursana died of smallpox in Russian lands in September 1757. In the spring of 1762, his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.[62]
Later encounters took place with the remaining Dzungar forces, in the Battle of Khorgos, in which the partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Again in 1758, at the Battle of Khurungui, General Zhaohui ambushed and defeated the Dzungarian forces on Mount Khurungui, near Almaty, Kazakhstan.[63]
The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Chinese general, Zhaohui attacked the Dzungars at night in the present Wusu, Xinjiang. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
"The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.[59]
Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General Zhaohui ambushes and defeats the Dzungar partisans of Amursana on Mount Khurungui (near Almaty, Kazakhstan). Painted by Jean-Damascène Sallusti.
When Amursana rebelled against the Qing dynasty, the Aq Taghliq (i.e., 'White Mountaineers', also known as Āfāqīs) Khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in Yarkand. Their rule was not popular, and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed, from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, the Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The Khoja brothers fled to Badakhshan, where they were captured by the ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759.[64]
According to the Qing scholar Wei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20 percent fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of li, there were no gers except for those who had surrendered.[65][66][67] Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack[68] which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people".[69]
It's argued by the historian Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor, which lasted for two years.[66] His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using the term jiao (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them".[70] The elderly, children, and women were spared, but they could not preserve their former names or titles.[70] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[71]
Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim Kazakhs and former people of the Yarkent Khanate in the Tarim Basin (now called Uyghurs), were treated poorly by their Buddhist Dzungar rulers, who used them as slave labor; in consequence, they participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like Khoja Emin or Khojis were granted titles within the Qing nobility,[72][73][74] and acted as intermediaries with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced the Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirats.[75]
After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the Qing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs), and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied.[77] Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in the north, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[78][79][80] Some cities in northern Xinjiang, such as Ürümqi and Yining, were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy.[81]
The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral and political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim Taranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[82] Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[83]
In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial.[84][85][86] The Qing ideology of unification portrayed the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples.[87]
Paintings
The Qianlong Emperor took great care to document his successes in the war.[10] He ordered the painting of the 100 most meritorious servitors of the Qing (Statues of Meritorious Officials in the Ziguang Pavilion: brave Qing officers, generals, and also a few Torghut and Dörbet allies, as well as vanquished Choros Oirats, or Muslim Uyghur allies such as Khojis or Emin Khoja), as well as paintings of the battle scenes whenever the Qing succeeded. The faces are in a Western realistic style, while the bodies were probably drawn by Chinese court artists.[10] According to contemporary Jesuit painter Jean-Denis Attiret: "During the whole duration of this war against the Eleuths and other Tartars, their allies, whenever the imperial troops gained some victories, the painters were ordered to paint them. Those of the most important officers who had played the decisive roles in the events were favoured to appear in the paintings according to what really had happened".[10] These paintings were all made by foreign artists, specifically the Jesuits under Giuseppe Castiglione, and Chinese court-painters under their direction.[10]
Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry, but also practiced limited agriculture. After the conquest of the Yarkent Khanate in 1680, they used people from the Tarim Basin (taranchi) as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry were fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to a degree that was unique in Central Asia at the time.[90] In 1762, the Qing army discovered four large Dzungar bronze cannons, eight "soaring" cannons, and 10,000 shells.[91]
In 1640, the Oirats created an Oirat Mongol Legal Code, which regulated the tribes and gave support to the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Erdeni Batur assisted Zaya Pandita in creating the Clear Script.[92]
Maps
The Dzungar Khanate in 1760
This map fragment shows territories of Oirats as in 1706 (Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675–1726)).
The Dzungar and Kalmyk states (a fragment of the map of the Russian Empire of Peter the Great, that was created by a Swedish soldier, Johan Renat in c. 1725)
A map of the Dzungar Khanate, by a Swedish solider, Johan Renat in captivity there from 1716 until 1733, which includes the region known today as Jetisu
↑Levene, Mark (2008). "Chapter 8: Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocide". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN978-1845454524.
↑Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)". Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies. 51: 170–185.
Adle, Chahryar (2003). History of Civilizations of Central Asia (5thed.). UNESCO, Adle Chahrayar. ISBN978-8120820463.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century". Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
Haines, R Spencer (2016). "The Physical Remains of the Zunghar Legacy in Central Eurasia: Some Notes from the Field". Paper Presented at the Social and Environmental Changes on the Mongolian Plateau Workshop, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)". Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies. 51. International Association of Mongolists: 170–185.
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Chu, Petra ten-Doesschate; Ding, Ning (1 October 2015). Qing Encounters: Artistic Exchanges between China and the West. Getty Publications. ISBN978-1-60606-457-3.
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Moiseev, V.A (2001). Джунгаро-казахские отношения в XVII–XVIII веках и политика России[Dzungar-Kazakh relations in the 17th-18th centuries and Russian politics] (in Basque). V.A. Moiseev.
Milward, James (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864. ISBN9780804729338.
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Millward, James A.; Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliot, Mark C. (2004). New Qing imperial history. Routledge. ISBN9781134362226.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Minahan, James (2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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