Tang dynasty in Inner Asia

Last updated
Map of the six major protectorates during Tang dynasty. The Protectorates are marked as Anxi, Anbei, Andong. Tang Protectorates.png
Map of the six major protectorates during Tang dynasty. The Protectorates are marked as Anxi, Anbei, Andong.

The Tang dynasty in Inner Asia was the expansion of the Tang dynasty's realm in Inner Asia in the 7th and, to a lesser degree, the 8th century AD, in the Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang), the Mongolian Plateau, and portions of Central Asia. Wars were fought against the Gokturk Empires and Xueyantuo, but also against many states of Central Asia. This expansion was not steady; for example, the Tang did lose control of the Tarim Basin temporarily to the Tibetan Empire in the 680s, and their expansion north of the Gobi Desert was thwarted in 682. Emperor Taizong's military success was, in part, a consequence of changes he initiated in the Chinese army, including improved weaponry. The emperor placed a new emphasis on cavalry, which was very important because his non-Han opponents used the horse effectively in warfare. [1]

Contents

History

Emperor Taizong's campaigns in the Tarim Basin Emperor Taizong's campaign against Xiyu states.svg
Emperor Taizong's campaigns in the Tarim Basin
Mural commemorating victory of General Zhang Yichao over the Tibetan Empire in 848. Mogao cave 156, late Tang dynasty Dunhuang Zhang Yichao army.jpg
Mural commemorating victory of General Zhang Yichao over the Tibetan Empire in 848. Mogao cave 156, late Tang dynasty

Tang expansion

The Tang dynasty was one of the Golden Ages of Chinese history. Coming out of the devastation of the late Sui dynasty, Tang emperors were eager to expand their territories by conquering the Gokturks. As a result, Tang forces mounted several campaigns against the Gokturks in order to subjugate them and consolidated Tang rule in the process. Controlling the Tarim Basin, which contained key trade routes, was also a secondary objective.

Tang conquest of the Eastern Gokturks

The Eastern Gokturks were the primary threat to the Tang dynasty. [2] Following Liang Shidu's defeat and death, the Tang dynasty prepared to march against the Eastern Gokturks. [3] In 630, the Tang army marched against the Gokturks and defeated them in Southern Mongolia, sending them to flight. [4] However, the real victory came when Li Jing, regarded as one of the best generals in Chinese history, surprised the Eastern Gokturk Khan with a fast force of 3,000 Cavalry at the battle of Ying shan, which also involved a rear guard of over 100,000 Tang troops. [4] This battle destroyed the Gokturk army, resulting in the capture of the Khan and over 120,000 Gokturks. [3] Thus ended the Eastern Gokturk Empire. Emperor Taizong of Tang took up the title of Tian Kehan, or "Heavenly Khan" of the Gokturks. [4]

Tang conquest of Xueyantuo

Xueyantuo had helped Tang armies defeat the Eastern Gokturks, but after the demise of the Eastern Gokturks, Xueyantuo-Tang relations turned hostile because Xueyantuo kept on making attacks on Gokturks who were now Tang subjects. [5]

In 642, Taizong sent an army to attack Xueyantuo and destroyed it. [3] [5]

Tang Conquest of the Western Gokturks

The Western Gokturks were not an initial threat to the Tang, so initially relations were peaceful. [6] However, Civil war and dispute in the Western Gokturks gave the Tang the opportunity to expand into Central Asia. [6] From 642 to 645, the Tang army defeated the Western Gokturks and drove them out of Dzungaria. [6]

In 657, the Tang defeated the last Western Gokturk Khan and took over all Western Gokturk territory. [6]

Second Göktürk Khaganate

In what has been described as "a response to a surge of something like national sentiment", [7] the Eastern Türkish Kaghanate was restored in 682 by Elterish (a.k.a. Qutlugh). [8] In the Orkhon inscriptions, Elterish's son describes the modest beginnings of Elterish's struggle against the Tang thus:

My father the kaghan set out with seventeen men, and as the word spread that he had set out and was advancing, those who were in the towns went up into the mountains and those who were in the mountains came down, they gathered, and there were seventy-seven men. Because heaven gave them strength, the army of my father was like wolves and his enemies were like sheep. [...] When they were seven hundred, in accordance with the institutions of my ancestors my father organized those who had been deprived of their state, those who had been deprived of their kaghan, who had become slaves and servants, who had lost their Türk institutions" [9]

The new Kaghanate was centered on the upper Orkhon river and in the Ötükän, presumably the Khangai mountains. After decades of war and border raids with the Tang, peace was made in 721–22. [10] The second Gokturk Khanate remained a tributary and vassal of the Tang dynasty. It then survived until the 740s, when it fell due to internal conflicts and was succeeded by the Uighur Kaghanate [11]

Battle of Talas River

The Battle of Talas was a military engagement between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate along with their ally the Tibetan Empire against the Tang dynasty, governed at the time by Emperor Xuanzong. In July 751 AD, Tang and Abbasid forces met in the valley of the Talas River to vie for control of the Syr Darya region of central Asia. After a stalemate in several days of combat, the Tang lost the battle because the Karluks defected from the Tang side to the Abbasid side. The defeat marked the end of Tang westward territorial expansion, resulting in Muslim control of Transoxiana for the next four hundred years.

Retrenchment of Tang influence post-763

In 755, the Tang dynasty was subject to the devastating Anshi Rebellion and lost much influence in Inner Asia, which came to be dominated by the Uyghurs. Tang influence and rule over the northwestern regions, however, continued until the dynasty's fall in 907, at which time these areas were taken over by the Tanguts, who later established the Western Xia dynasty in 1038. [12]

Tang-Uyghur relations

Although they now controlled most of the Mongolian Plateau, the Uyghur Khans still maintained relatively cordial relations with the Tang dynasty, accepting many titles from the Tang emperors. in 788, the Uyghur Khan pleaded the Tang emperor to change the title of the Uyghurs from Huihe (回紇) to Huihu (回鶻). [12]

Fall of the Uyghur Khanate

Armoured Turkic horseman with shield and lance Xin Jiang Wu Shi  (51357286766).jpg
Armoured Turkic horseman with shield and lance

By the mid-800's, the power of the Uyghur Khanate was on the wane. Attacked on all sides, the Uyghurs retreated to the Xinjiang area and their Khanate collapsed, to be replaced by other peoples [12]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Göktürks</span> Turkic people in Inner Asia

The Göktürks, Celestial Turks or Blue Turks were a Turkic people in medieval Inner Asia. The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan and his sons, succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the main power in the region and established the First Turkic Khaganate, one of several nomadic dynasties that would shape the future geolocation, culture, and dominant beliefs of Turkic peoples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor Taizong of Tang</span> Emperor of China from 626 to 649

Emperor Taizong of Tang, previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty for his role in encouraging his father Li Yuan to rebel against the Sui dynasty at Jinyang in 617. Taizong subsequently played a pivotal role in defeating several of the dynasty's most dangerous opponents and solidifying its rule over China proper.

The proto-Mongols emerged from an area that had been inhabited by humans and predecessor hominin species as far back as 45,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The people there went through the Bronze and Iron Ages, forming tribal alliances, peopling, and coming into conflict with early polities in the Central Plain.

Khagan or Qaghan is a title of imperial rank in Turkic, Mongolic, and some other languages, equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire). The female equivalent is Khatun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaochang</span> Site of historical ruins in Xinjiang

Gaochang, also called Khocho, Karakhoja, Qara-hoja, Kara-Khoja or Karahoja, was a ruined ancient oasis city on the northern rim of the inhospitable Taklamakan Desert in present-day Sanbu Township, Xinjiang, China. The site is also known in published reports as Chotscho, Khocho, Qocho or Qočo. During the Yuan dynasty and Ming dynasty, Gaochang was referred to as "Halahezhuo" (Qara-khoja) and Huozhou. Artistic depictions of the city have been published by Albert von Le Coq. Gaochang is considered in some sources to have been a "Chinese colony", that is, it was located in a region otherwise occupied at the time by West Eurasian peoples.

Illig Qaghan, born Ashina Duobi, posthumous name Prince Huang of Guiyi (歸義荒王), was the last qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Xinjiang</span> Aspect of Chinese history

Xinjiang is historically consisted of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs. They were conquered by the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, and after the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) the Qing reconquered both regions and integrated them into one province named Xinjiang in 1884.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xueyantuo</span> Tribal confederation in the Eurasian Steppe (3rd cen. BC – 4th cen. CE)

The Xueyantuo were an ancient Tiele tribe and khaganate in Northeast Asia who were at one point vassals of the Göktürks, later aligning with the Tang dynasty against the Eastern Göktürks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</span> Former empire in the 6th and 7th centuries

The Eastern Turkic Khaganate was a Turkic khaganate formed as a result of the internecine wars in the beginning of the 7th century after the First Turkic Khaganate had splintered into two polities – one in the east and the other in the west. Finally, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was defeated and absorbed by the Tang dynasty, and Xueyantuo occupied the territory of the former Turkic Khaganate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks</span> Conquest of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate by the Tang dynasty

The Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks of 629-630 was an armed conflict that resulted in the Tang dynasty destroying the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and annexing its territories.

The Emperor Taizong of Tang, the second emperor of the Tang dynasty, early in his reign, had allied with Xueyantuo, a vassal of the powerful Eastern Turkic Khaganate, against Eastern Turks, who Tang defeated in 630. Upon Eastern Turks' defeat, Xueyantuo's Zhenzhu Khan Yi'nan took over Eastern Turks' former territory, and while he was formally submissive to Tang, he was expanding his own strength. When Emperor Taizong tried to restore Eastern Turks in 639 under the Qilibi Khan Ashina Simo to counteract the rise of Xueyantuo power, Xueyantuo engaged in multiple battles with the newly restored Eastern Turks, in order to prevent this return. The major Tang general Li Shiji temporarily came to protect Eastern Turks against Xueyantuo and defeated the Xueyantuo forces in 641. But in 644, with Emperor Taizong occupied with a campaign against Goguryeo, Xueyantuo forces launched a new campaign, defeated Eastern Turks, forcing Ashina Simo to flee back to Tang. Subsequently, Goguryeo sought aid from Xueyantuo, but Yi'nan avoided further conflict, wanting to avoid direct battle with Tang. After Yi'nan's death in 645, however, his son Duomi Khan Bazhuo began heavily battling Tang forces. In 646, Tang forces counterattacked, and after they defeated Bazhuo, Xueyantuo's vassal Huige rose and killed him. His cousin, the Yitewushi Khan Duomozhi, surrendered to Tang forces, ending Xueyantuo.

Qilibi Khan, personal name Ashina Simo (阿史那思摩), Chinese name Li Simo (李思摩), full regal title Yiminishuqilibi Khagan (乙彌泥孰俟力苾可汗), Tang noble title Prince of Huaihua (懷化王), was a member of the Eastern Tujue (Göktürk) royal house who was given the title of Khan of Eastern Tujue for several years, as a vassal of the Chinese Tang dynasty.

The First Turkic Khaganate, also referred to as the First Turkic Empire, the Turkic Khaganate or the Göktürk Khaganate, was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks in medieval Inner Asia under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan and his brother Istämi. The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in Central Asia, and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from Manchuria to the Black Sea.

The history of the Uyghur people extends over more than two millennia and can be divided into four distinct phases: Pre-Imperial, Imperial, Idiqut, and Mongol, with perhaps a fifth modern phase running from the death of the Silk Road in AD 1600 until the present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Second Turkic Khaganate</span> 682–744 khaganate founded by the Göktürks

The Second Turkic Khaganate was a khaganate in Central and Eastern Asia founded by Ashina clan of the Göktürks that lasted between 682–744. It was preceded by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (552–630) and the early Tang dynasty period (630–682). The Second Khaganate was centered on Ötüken in the upper reaches of the Orkhon River. It was succeeded by its subject Toquz Oghuz confederation, which became the Uyghur Khaganate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conquest of the Western Turks</span>

The conquest of the Western Turks, known as the Western Tujue in Chinese sources, was a military campaign in 655–657 led by the Tang dynasty generals Su Dingfang and Cheng Zhijie against the Western Turkic Khaganate ruled by Ashina Helu. The Tang campaigns against the Western Turks began in 640 with the annexation of the Tarim Basin oasis state Gaochang, an ally of the Western Turks. Several of the oasis states had once been vassals of the Tang dynasty, but switched their allegiance to the Western Turks when they grew suspicious of the military ambitions of the Tang. Tang expansion into Central Asia continued with the conquest of Karasahr in 644 and Kucha in 648. Cheng Zhijie commanded the first foray against the West Tujue, and in 657 Su Dingfang commanded the main army dispatched against the Western Turks, while the Turkic generals Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen led the side divisions. The Tang troops were reinforced by cavalry supplied by the Uyghurs, a tribe that had been allied with the Tang since their support for the Uyghur revolt against the Xueyantuo. Su Dingfang's army defeated Helu at the battle of Irtysh River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tang campaigns against the Western Turks</span> 640–712 Chinese expansion into Central Asia

The Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, known as the Western Tujue in Chinese sources, were a series of military campaigns conducted by the Tang dynasty against the Western Turkic Khaganate in the 7th century AD. Early military conflicts were a result of the Tang interventions in the rivalry between the Western and Eastern Turks in order to weaken both. Under Emperor Taizong, campaigns were dispatched in the Western Regions against Gaochang in 640, Karasahr in 644 and 648, and Kucha in 648.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turks in the Tang military</span> Overview of the use of Turkic troops in the Tang dynasty military

The military of the Tang dynasty was staffed with a large population of Turkic soldiers, referred to as Tujue (突厥) in Chinese sources. Tang elites in northern China were familiar with Turkic culture, a factor that contributed to the empire's acceptance of Turkic recruits. The Emperor Taizong of Tang adopted the title of "Heavenly Khagan" and promoted a cosmopolitan empire. Turkic soldiers that served under the Tang dynasty originated from the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. It began with Taizong who sent his general Li Jing, eventually ended in defeating the Eastern Turks and capturing their leader Jiali Khan.

Khan of Heaven or Tian Kehan, Celestial Kha(ga)n, Heavenly Kha(ga)n, Tengri Kha(ga)n was a title addressed to the Emperor Taizong of Tang by various Turkic nomads. It was first mentioned in accounts on May 20, 630 and again on October 24, 646, shortly after the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Xueyantuo were annihilated by the Tang dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Yinshan</span> Battle between the Tang dynasty and Eastern Turkic Khaganate

The Battle of Yinshan was fought on 27 March 630 CE near the Yin mountain range close to the city of Dingxiang. Emperor Taizong (598-649) commissioned the famed Tang military officer Li Jing, along with Li Shiji, Wei Xiaojie, Li Daozong, Chai Shao (柴紹), and Xue Wanche (薛萬徹) to attack forces under the command of Illig Qaghan, leader of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples based in Inner Asia. The battle ended in defeat for the Göktürks and resulted in the dissolution of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, which was eventually replaced by the Protectorate General to Pacify the North, otherwise known as the Anbei Protectorate (安北都護府) in 647 CE after the Tang dynasty definitively conquered the Xueyantuo.

References

Citations

  1. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. (1965). The Chinese: Their History and Culture, p. 144.
  2. Li Bo; Zheng Yin. 5000 Years of Chinese History. pp. 764–765.
  3. 1 2 3 Li Bo; Zheng Yin. 5000 Years of Chinese History. p. 766.
  4. 1 2 3 Li Bo; Zheng Yin. 5000 Years of Chinese History. p. 765.
  5. 1 2 Bo Yang. Outlines of the History of the Chinese. Vol. 2. p. 512.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Li Bo; Zheng Yin. 5000 Years of Chinese History. p. 767.
  7. Grousset, René. (1970). The Empire of the Steppes, p. 103.
  8. Sinor, Denis. (1990). Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, p. 310.
  9. Sinor, p. 311.
  10. Grousset, p. 112.
  11. Sinor, p. 313.
  12. 1 2 3 Li; Zheng. 5000 Years of Chinese History. p. 768.

Sources