Chinese Empire

Last updated

Chinese Empire (or Empire of China) is a term referring to the realm ruled by the Emperor of China during the era known as Imperial China. It was coined by western scholars and used to describe the Ming and Qing dynasties (or imperial Chinese dynasties in general). Another term was "Celestial Empire", in reference to the status of the emperor as the Son of Heaven. In 221 BC, China was unified under an emperor for the first time, and various dynasties or empires founded by hereditary monarchs ruled China for a total of two millennia since then, including the Qin, Han, Jin, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing.

Contents

Etymology and usage

A 1890 map showing Qing China (labeled "Chinese Empire"). Qing china.jpg
A 1890 map showing Qing China (labeled "Chinese Empire").
A 1851 map showing the Inner Asian dependencies of the Chinese Empire. John-Tallis-1851-Tibet-Mongolia-and-Manchuria-33621.jpg
A 1851 map showing the Inner Asian dependencies of the Chinese Empire.
A 1840 map showing the Chinese Empire and Japan. Chinese empire and Japan. LOC 2006629414.tif
A 1840 map showing the Chinese Empire and Japan.
A 1825 map showing the Chinese Empire and other Asian regions. A new universal atlas of the world.Asia.jpg
A 1825 map showing the Chinese Empire and other Asian regions.

The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century. China was previously known to Europeans as Cathay, as used in Marco Polo's book on his travels in the 13th century (during the Yuan dynasty), and it took a while for most Europeans to be convinced that Cathay referred to China or North China. [1] The term "Chinese Empire" first appeared in the 16th century (late Ming dynasty), and its usage increased during the following Qing dynasty. [2]

Ming dynasty

As European explorers came into direct contact with the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) of China during their voyages in the early 16th century, the European intellectual community began to update its concept of the Chinese political system. Initially however the vast majority of them considered Ming China a kingdom rather than an empire. It appeared that it was Maximilianus Transylvanus who first considered China an empire in his work. In 1585, Juan González de Mendoza pointed out that Ming China was at the imperial level based on the multi-level system of the tribute system. Afterwards, Europeans like Matteo Ricci, Álvaro Semedo, Martino Martini and Philippe Couplet gradually constructed the name "Chinese Empire" by comparing the empire-kingdom level, translating European and Chinese concepts and constructing genealogies. However, popular adoption was a slow process. Even the 1615 book De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas by Matteo Ricci (one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions) more often referred to Ming China as a kingdom than an empire. By the last decade of the Ming dynasty though, an increasing number of Europeans began to refer to the Ming dynasty as "Chinese Empire". [2]

Qing dynasty

With the transition from Ming to Qing, Europeans began to apply the name "Chinese Empire" to the Qing dynasty (1644-1912). [2] "Chinese Empire" (or "Empire of China") was commonly used during the Qing period, most notably in the western maps and international treaties. The Tsardom of Russia began official communications with the Qing dynasty in the 1650s, and Russian documents from that period referred to Qing China as "Empire of China", "Chinese state" or the state of Bogda. [3] In the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk, the authoritative Latin text used the name "Imperii Sinici" (meaning "Chinese Empire") to refer to the Qing realm. [4] [5] George Macartney, the first envoy of Great Britain to China in 1793, had famously said "the Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past..." shortly after his mission to China. [6] While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional Chinese tributary system, by the second half of the 19th century it had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states. [7] In the process, Qing dynasty's geographical boundaries were redefined by western powers and Japan through diplomacy and warfare. The Qing administration made an effort to effectively manage its borders while modernizing itself, and its dependencies in Inner Asia (collectively known as Chinese Tartary at that time) were internalized and integrated into China's imperial dominion as accepted by the western countries. Throughout the 19th century, western cartographers commonly included Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan), and Tibet, along with China proper separated by lines, as part of the "Chinese Empire" in published maps. In the last decade of the Qing dynasty, maps published in China caught up with Western cartography, and China's Inner Asian frontiers were enclosed by fixed international boundaries and not separated from China proper by special demarcations. [8]

Continuous or separate empire(s)

While the term "Chinese Empire" may be used to specifically mean the Ming or the Qing dynasties during the existence of these dynasties, it was often used in a sense to refer to a continuous empire ruled by various dynasties in Chinese history, as the traditional Chinese historiography conceives its history in terms of an unbroken sequence of dynasties (see dynastic cycle). [9] For example, when Juan González de Mendoza talked about ancient China in his work in the late 16th century, he clearly stated in three places that the first (mythical) sovereign of China, the Yellow Emperor, made the Chinese kingdom an empire; since China was already an empire during the time of the Yellow Emperor, all dynasties from then on were regarded as the continuation of the "empire". According to Matteo Ricci's view of "imperial power transfer", the name of the empire had not changed since ancient times, but it often had other names due to different ruling families; for instance, the name of "German Empire" would never change, but when the Austrian family ruled, it could also be called "Austrian Empire". [2] Likewise, according to the newspaper New York Herald published in 1853, "during four thousand and sixty years, twenty-one dynasties have swayed the destines of the Chinese Empire, embracing, besides the present sovereign, two hundred and twenty Emperors, whose average reigns have been nearly nineteen years each". [10]

On the other hand, modern scholars usually consider the imperial dynasties separate states or empires rather than a single continuous empire, especially since the end of Imperial China. Meanwhile, the English term "Emperor" nowadays generally corresponds to the Chinese term Huangdi (皇帝), also referred to as Emperor of China. For example, the Qin dynasty, which was the first to use the title Emperor or Huangdi, has been referred to as "the first Chinese Empire" in modern sources. [11] [12] On the other hand, the Qing dynasty is regarded as the last Chinese Empire. [13] The dynasties in between them are similarly regarded as empires instead of a single continuous empire, and terms such as "Sui-Tang transition" and "Ming-Qing transition" were introduced in the second half of the 20th century to highlight the changes during transitions of these periods, [14] While imperial dynasties are no longer considered a single empire, some dynasties may be grouped together by some scholars, such as the Qin and the Han dynasty that followed, collectively called the "Qin-Han Empire" by some researchers. [15] Taken together, these two dynasties constitute the "classical" era of Chinese civilization, as did the Greeks and Romans in the West. [16]

General history

Approximate territorial extent of the various dynasties and states in Chinese history. China Dynasties.gif
Approximate territorial extent of the various dynasties and states in Chinese history.

The period of Imperial China lasted more than two millennia, connecting ancient and modern history. Although Chinese dynasties or empires rose and fell during those centuries, including during periods of strife and war, Imperial China endured with remarkable constancy. [17] The defining characteristics of all Chinese empires were their large scale and the diversity of their peoples. [18]

Originally emerged as a loose collection of various Han Chinese-speaking entities during the Warring States period, the Qin's wars of unification brought most of the Huaxia realm into one single dynasty, establishing Qin as the first imperial dynasty in 221 BC, the year where the first Chinese empire was established. [19] Imperial China would continue to expand even after the collapse of the Qin dynasty, with the Han dynasty expanding to the north, south and west. [20] During the Tang dynasty four centuries later, China achieved a golden age in terms of its economic, military and political power. Tang's territory spanned Central Asia, Northeast Asia and parts of Southeast Asia, until the dynasty ended following the An Lushan rebellion in the eight century. [21] [22] [23] [24] Imperial China marked its revival under the Mongol-based Yuan dynasty, when Inner Asian territories such as Tibet and Mongolia were incorporated. The Qing dynasty, founded three centuries after the fall of the Yuan dynasty, laid ground to most of China's modern border with its re-expansion into Inner Asia. [25] [26]

One year after the 1911 Revolution, the Qing monarchy was abolished following the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor (Puyi), thus putting an end to the era of Imperial China. [27] Three years later, Yuan Shikai restored imperial rule with himself as the emperor. It lasted only 83 days before his own abdication due to mounting disapproval and revolts as well as Yuan's declining health. [28] [29] In July 1917, Puyi was reinstalled by Zhang Xun but the restoration was reversed in less than two weeks. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan, the Tarim Basin, and the Himalayas, as far north as the Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the delta of the Red River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qing dynasty</span> Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644–1912)

The Qing dynasty, officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history. The dynasty, proclaimed in Shenyang in 1636, seized control of Beijing in 1644, which is considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The dynasty lasted until the Xinhai Revolution of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor, February 12, 1912. In Chinese historiography, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the history of China and in 1790 the fourth-largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. With over 426 million citizens in 1907, it was the most populous country in the world at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor of China</span>

Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" was the superlative title held by the monarchs who ruled various imperial dynasties or Chinese empires. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the "Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine mandate right to rule all under Heaven. Emperors were worshiped posthumously under an imperial cult. The lineage of emperors descended from a paternal family line constituted a dynasty, and succession in most cases theoretically followed agnatic primogeniture. The emperor of China was an absolute monarch.

This is a list of historical capitals of China.

The names of China include the many contemporary and historical designations given in various languages for the East Asian country known as Zhōngguó in Standard Chinese, a form based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin.

Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states. It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.

For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC, and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties. Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.

Pax Sinica is a historiographical term referring to periods of peace and stability in East Asia, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia led by China. A study on the Sinocentric world system reveals that the multiple periods of Pax Sinica, when taken together, amounted to a length of approximately two thousand years.

The foreign relations of Imperial China from the Qin dynasty until the Qing dynasty encompassed many situations as the fortunes of dynasties rose and fell. Chinese culture had influenced neighboring and distant countries, while being transformed by outside influences as well as being conquered. During the Western Han dynasty, the Silk Road trade routes were established and brought Hellenistic Central Asia, Persia under the Parthian Empire, and South Asia into contact with the Chinese empire. During the 2nd century BC, Zhang Qian became the first known Chinese diplomat to venture deep into Central Asia in search of allies against the Mongolic Xiongnu confederation. Han Chinese attempts were made at reaching the Roman Empire and although the mission led by Gan Ying in 97 AD was a failure, Chinese historical records nevertheless maintain that the Romans traveled to southern China and Vietnam via the Indian Ocean. Buddhism from India was introduced to China during the Eastern Han period and would spread to neighboring Vietnam, Korea, and Japan, all of which would adopt similar Confucian cultures based on the Chinese model.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese expansionism</span> Aspect of Chinese history

Territorial expansion took place during multiple periods of Chinese history, especially under the dynasties of Han, Tang, Yuan, and Qing. Chinese expansionism as a motivation or even coherent phenomenon has been contentiously discussed in regard to the contemporary People's Republic of China and its territorial claims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grand chancellor (China)</span> Head of imperial Chinese government

The grand chancellor, also translated as counselor-in-chief, chancellor, chief councillor, chief minister, imperial chancellor, lieutenant chancellor and prime minister, was the highest-ranking executive official in the imperial Chinese government. The term was known by many different names throughout Chinese history, and the exact extent of the powers associated with the position fluctuated greatly, even during a particular dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heirloom Seal of the Realm</span> Ancient Chinese imperial jade seal

The Heirloom Seal of the Realm, also known in English as the Imperial Seal of China, was a Chinese jade seal allegedly carved out of the Heshibi, a sacred piece of jade. The Seal was created in 221 BC, shortly after Qin Shi Huang unified China and established the Qin dynasty, China's first imperial dynasty. The Heirloom Seal served as the imperial Chinese seal throughout the next millennium of Chinese history, and its possession was seen as a physical symbol of the Mandate of Heaven.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Hong Kong under Imperial China</span>

The History of Hong Kong under Imperial China began in 214 BC during the Qin dynasty. The territory remained largely unoccupied until the later years of the Qing dynasty when Imperial China ceded the region to Great Britain under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, whereupon Hong Kong became a British Colony.

A conquest dynasty in the history of China refers to a Chinese dynasty established by non-Han ethnicities which ruled parts or all of China proper, the traditional heartland of the Han people, and whose rulers may or may not have fully assimilated into the dominant Han culture.

During the late Zhou dynasty, the inhabitants of the Central Plains began to make a distinction between Hua and Yi, referred to by some historians as the Sino–barbarian dichotomy. They defined themselves as part of cultural and political region known as Huaxia, which they contrasted with the surrounding regions home to outsiders, conventionally known as the Four Barbarians. Although Yi is usually translated as "barbarian", other translations of this term in English include "foreigners", "ordinary others", "wild tribes" and "uncivilized tribes". The Hua–Yi distinction asserted Chinese superiority, but implied that outsiders could become Hua by adopting their culture and customs. The Hua–Yi distinction was not unique to China, but was also applied by various Vietnamese, Japanese, and Koreans regimes, all of whom considered themselves at one point in history to be legitimate successors to the Chinese civilization and the "Central State" in imitation of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic history of China before 1912</span>

The economic history of China covers thousands of years and the region has undergone alternating cycles of prosperity and decline. China, for the last two millennia, was one of the world's largest and most advanced economies. Economic historians usually divide China's history into three periods: the pre-imperial era before the rise of the Qin; the early imperial era from the Qin to the rise of the Song ; and the late imperial era, from the Song to the fall of the Qing.

The history of the Qing dynasty began in the first half of the 17th century, when the Qing dynasty was established and became the last imperial dynasty of China, succeeding the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The Manchu leader Hong Taiji renamed the Later Jin established by his father Nurhaci to "Great Qing" in 1636, sometimes referred to as the Predynastic Qing in historiography. By 1644 the Shunzhi Emperor and his prince regent seized control of the Ming capital Beijing, and the year 1644 is generally considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912, when Puyi abdicated the throne in response to the 1911 Revolution. As the final imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty reached heights of power unlike any of the Chinese dynasties which preceded it, engaging in large-scale territorial expansion which ended with embarrassing defeat and humiliation to the foreign powers whom they believe to be inferior to them. The Qing dynasty's inability to successfully counter Western and Japanese imperialism ultimately led to its downfall, and the instability which emerged in China during the final years of the dynasty ultimately paved the way for the Warlord Era.

The New Qing History is a historiographical school that gained prominence in the United States in the mid-1990s by offering a major revision of history of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eunuchs in China</span>

A eunuch is a man who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles. Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monarchy of China</span> Form of government in historical China

China was a monarchy from prehistoric times up to 1912, when a republic was established. The succession of legendary monarchs of China were non-hereditary. Dynastic rule began c. 2070 BC when Yu the Great established the Xia dynasty, and monarchy lasted until 1912 when dynastic rule collapsed together with the monarchical government. Various attempts at preserving and restoring the Chinese monarchy occurred during and following the Xinhai Revolution, but these regimes were short-lived and lacked widespread recognition.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994), Asia in the Making of Europe, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1575–1577, ISBN   978-0-226-46734-4
  2. 1 2 3 4 "西方"中华帝国"概念的起源（1516—1688）" . Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  3. ↑ Kuzmin, Sergius L. "Dmitriev, S.V. and Kuzmin, S.L. 2012. What is China? The Middle State in historical myth and real policy, Oriens (Moscow), no 3, pp. 5-19". Archived from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
  4. ↑ Wang, Yuanchong (2018). Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. Brighton: Cornell University Press. p. 10. ISBN   9781501730511.
  5. ↑ Hayton, Bill (2021). 製造中國：近代中國如何煉成的九個關鍵詞. 麥田. p. 23. ISBN   9786263100275.
  6. ↑ "A Lesson for American Foreign Trade with China". 6 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 June 2024. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
  7. ↑ —— (2009). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 211. ISBN   978-0-674-03612-3.
  8. ↑ Kirby, William C. (2020). The People's Republic of China at 60: An International Assessment. History of Imperial China. Brill. p. 308. ISBN   9781684171217.
  9. ↑ Evelyn, Evelyn (2015). Early Modern China and Northeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN   9781107093089.
  10. ↑ "The Chinese Empire". New York Daily Herald. United States. 14 June 1853.
  11. ↑ The New York Times, ed. (2011). The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind. St. Martin's Publishing Group. p. 513. ISBN   9781429950855.
  12. ↑ Dietmar W. Winkler, ed. (2013). From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia. Lit. p. 126. ISBN   9783643903297.
  13. ↑ Stephanie Lawson, ed. (2013). Europe and the Asia-Pacific: Culture, Identity and Representations of Region. Taylor & Francis. p. 154. ISBN   9781136497322.
  14. ↑ Chun-shu Chang (1998). Crisis and Transformation in Seventeenth-century China. University of Michigan Press. p. 6. ISBN   9780472085286.
  15. ↑ Andrea Balbo, ed. (2022). Empire and Politics in the Eastern and Western Civilizations. De Gruyter. p. 30. ISBN   9783110731590.
  16. ↑ Mark Edward Lewis, ed. (2010). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press. p. 1.
  17. ↑ Samir Puri, ed. (2021). The Shadows of Empire. Pegasus Books. p. 106. ISBN   9781643136691.
  18. ↑ Mark Edward Lewis, ed. (2010). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press. p. 2.
  19. ↑ "Qin Shi Huang | Biography, Accomplishments, Family, United China, Tomb, & Facts | Britannica". 8 April 2024. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  20. ↑ "Expansion and political transition of the Han Empire". Early China. New Approaches to Asian History. Cambridge University Press. 2013. pp. 256–281. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139034395.015. ISBN   978-0-521-89552-1.
  21. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  22. ↑ Pan, Yihong (1997). "Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and its Neighbors". East Asian Studies Press. Studies on East Asia, Volume 20. Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University. doi:10.25710/vs3m-gw59. Archived from the original on 6 June 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  23. ↑ "Northeast Asian History Network". Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  24. ↑ "Sinification of East and Southeast Asia".
  25. ↑ "Overview and expansion of the Qing dynasty - the Qing dynasty - KS3 History - homework help for year 7, 8 and 9".
  26. ↑ "Qing dynasty (1644–1911)". Archived from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  27. ↑ "The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)". 4 June 2013. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  28. ↑ Zhengyuan Fu. (1994) Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics, Cambridge University Press. pp. 153–154. ISBN   0-521-44228-1.
  29. ↑ Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) The Search for Modern China, p. 282.
  30. ↑ Literary Knowledge. Henan People's Publishing House. 1984.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.