Terrorism in China

Last updated

Terrorism in China refers to the use of terrorism to cause a political or ideological change in the People's Republic of China. [1] [2] The definition of terrorism differs among scholars, between international and national bodies and across time and there is no legally binding definition internationally. [3] [4] In the cultural setting of China, the term is relatively new and ambiguous. [5]

Contents

The government of the People's Republic of China identifies terrorism as one of the "Three Evils". These forces are seen by Beijing as inter-connected threats to social stability and national security. In particular, terrorism is viewed as a violent manifestation of ethnic separatism, and separatism is understood as a corollary of religious zealotry. [6] The government has embarked on strike-hard campaigns to suppress these tendencies, particularly in the Xinjiang and Tibetan regions. [6]

Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, the PRC has strengthened its involvement in multilateral and bilateral counter-terrorism efforts. As a result of these efforts, several Uyghur separatist movements have been labelled as terrorist groups by the United Nations and U.S. Department of State. [7] There have been allegations that the Chinese government has been applying charges of terrorism in an inconsistent and sometimes politically motivated manner. [8] These allegations represent one of the contributing factors that play into the existing tensions between the Chinese Communist party and the Uyghur minority.

On January 23, 2024, the Information Office of the State Council released a white paper on "China's Counter-Terrorism Legal System and Practice," which emphasized that China is a victim of terrorism and faces the threat of terrorism. [9] Subsequently, on January 24, the People's Daily published an opinion piece demanding that anti-terrorism work must be carried out on the track of the rule of law. [10]

Chinese cultural context

The concept of terrorism, as it evolved and is understood in the West, did not exist in imperial China. In that setting, political criminality took the form of violence against the emperor, and was viewed as harmful as it induced fear and led to "chaos." [5] With the exception of "good" political violence against rulers whose lack of propriety and virtue resulted in loss of the mandate of heaven, violence was seen as contrary to human nature and the Tao. [5] Kam Wong argues that the dynamics of imperial China form the basis for contemporary Chinese understandings of terrorism. [5]

Fear of chaos and social disorder is a powerful factor in mobilizing political will to combat potential threats. [11] [8] In the modern context, any group or force with the potential to challenge the existing social order or the political security of the rulers may be considered a form of terrorism. It is "to be condemned unrelentingly and suppressed at all costs," according to Wong. [5]

There is currently no clearly established definition for terrorism either nationally or internationally, [12] though the National People's Congress is in the process of drafting legislation that would clarify the use of the term in Chinese law. The draft legislation, as reported by Xinhua News Agency, classified as terrorism acts that "cause or aim to cause severe harm to society by causing casualties, bringing about major economic losses, damaging public facilities or disturbing social order." [13] Human rights groups charge that the term is sometimes applied to non-violent dissidents in China. [12] [14]

Regionally focused terrorism and political violence

Xinjiang

Xinjiang, literally "new frontier," is a provincial-level autonomous region situated in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Xinjiang in China (de-facto).svg
Xinjiang, literally "new frontier," is a provincial-level autonomous region situated in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.

Media reports and scholarly studies of terrorism in contemporary China frequently focus on members of the largely Muslim Uyghur ethnic group, who are concentrated in the Northwestern province of Xinjiang. [11] Throughout its history, the region now known as Xinjiang was ruled intermittently by China, [15] while the local Uyghurs identify more closely with the cultures of Central Asia and had resisted attempts at assimilation to Han Chinese culture. From 1933 to 1934, Uyghurs founded a short-lived Islamic republic, and the Soviets supported Communist Uyghur rebels in the Ili Rebellion from 1944 to 1949 against the Republic of China and the Second East Turkestan Republic, before the Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China in 1949. [11] [15] After the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union amassed troops on the Russian border with Xinjiang, and bolstered "East Turkestan" separatist movements, which received moral and material support from other regional militant groups. [16] China accused the Soviets of engineering riots, and improved the military infrastructure there to combat it. [17]

In the 1980s, Chinese authorities relaxed some of its repressive policies against ethnic minorities, and loosened border controls which allowed Uyghurs to travel to the Mecca Pilgrimage. During this period, some Uyghurs came into contact with radical Islamist groups operating in Central Asia and Pakistan, while others were studied in Koranic schools associated with Islamist movements. [18] The increase in fundamentalism has been linked to the Islamic revival of the 1980s, following Deng Xiaoping's political reforms which sought to reduce the suppression of religion and promotion of atheism that was widespread during Mao's rule. Rémi Castets has commented that this led to a "more militant logic using Islam as an instrument for distinguishing Uyghur values from the non-clerical and atheistic values promoted by the Chinese authorities." [19] Following the fall of the Soviet Union and the independence of the former Soviet republics in Central Asia, the Chinese government feared a resurgence of separatist movements, as well a spread of radical Islam in the region, which could destabilize its infrastructure in Xinjiang. During this time, countries such as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan offered asylum to Uyghur refugees, and recognition to groups pursuing independence. [18] To combat this, the Beijing government settled border disputes and offered economic co-operation with the Central Asian republics through the Shanghai Co-operation Organisation, and successfully persuaded these countries to ban Uyghur separatist groups residing there, as well as to extradite suspected Uyghur separatist refugees.

A chain of aggressive and belligerent press releases in the 1990s making false claims about violent insurrections in Xinjiang, and exaggerating both the number of Chinese migrants and the total number of Uyghurs in Xinjiang were made by the Soviet-supported URFET leader Yusupbek Mukhlisi. [20] [21]

There is no single Uyghur agenda, and grievances of Uyghurs against the Chinese government are mostly political in nature. [22] While some Uyghurs desire an independent state in line with Turkic ethnic groups of Central Asia, others desire an autonomous relation with China while retaining their distinct culture, whereas others desire extensive integration with the Chinese political system. [15] [22]

The desire for independence or greater political and cultural autonomy largely stems from resentment over perceived restrictions to religious and cultural expression, ethnic conflict with the local Han Chinese population, income inequality, [11] [15] and the perception that Beijing's government is misallocating Xinjiang's natural resource wealth. [11] Some groups have adopted violent tactics in pursuit of these goals, mostly the establishment of a separate Uyghur state called East Turkistan or Uyghuristan, which lays claim to a large part of China. [22] Entities identified in Chinese government documents as having involvement in violent attacks include the East Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), East Turkistan Liberation Organization (ETLO), United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET), and the Uyghur Liberation Organization (ULO). [23] Members of these groups are believed to have received training in Central Asian nations such as Afghanistan and Pakistan. [24] Such violent groups have been noted as frequently splintering, merging, and collapsing, which makes claims difficult to substantiate. [22] China's Muslim Hui people, who are comparatively well integrated into Chinese society, regard some Uyghurs as "unpatriotic separatists who give other Chinese Muslims a bad name," according to the New York Times. [25]

Scholars have indicated that violence in Xinjiang is based on an assortment of ideologies, and there is no single dominant ideology among the Uyghurs. As James A. Millward wrote, incidents have "been discontinuous and characterized by a variety of ideologies, Islam being only one of them." Islam, Pan-Turkic nationalism, and Uyghur nationalism are all factors in unrest in the Xinjiang region. [23] [24] [11] There are six incidents in China from 1990 to 2005, according to Ogden, that meet the strictest definition of terrorism, meaning the use of "random" violence against innocent civilians to cause terror, and excluding calculated violence against the state to advance a secessionist movement. [11] Among the events identified by Ogden was an incident on 5 February 1992 when Uyghur separatists (possibly belonging to the East Turkestan Islamic Party) detonated bombs on two public buses and in two buildings in Urumqi and a bomb attack on a hotel in Kashgar on 17 June 1992. [26] Instances of violence by ethnic Uyghurs against security forces, organs, or infrastructure of the state are far more common, but are distinguished by scholars from terrorism aimed against the civilian population. [11] According to Martin, Chinese authorities frequently classify any act of violence or separatist activity in Xinjiang as a manifestation of terrorism, while comparable acts by ethnic Han Chinese would not be classified in this manner. [8]

On 28 October 2013, five Uyghurs drove a jeep into Beijing's Tiananmen Square, set the gas tank on fire, killed two civilians and injured more than forty bystanders. [27] These Uyghurs had jihadist flags and there was evidence of their ties to ETIM. [27]

On 2 March 2014, eight Uyghurs armed with knives attacked civilians in a train station in southern China, killing 33 and injuring 143. [27]

On 27 May 2014 a rare mass trial was held at a packed sports stadium in Xinjiang where three people were sentenced to death and another 53 received lengthy jail terms, after being convicted of terrorism charges. 39 people had been sentenced at a similar gathering the previous week. An anti-terror campaign which began in 2013 and continued into 2014 preceded the sentencing trials. The campaign included attacks on railway stations and a market in Xinjiang in which seventy people were killed and several hundred wounded. [28]

TIP (ETIM) sent the "Turkistan Brigade" (Arabic : كتيبة تركستاني, Katibat Turkistani) to take part in the Syrian Civil War, [29] most noticeably in the 2015 Jisr al-Shughur offensive. [30] [31] [32] [33] The leader of TIP (ETIM) in Syria is Abu Rida al-Turkestani (أبو رضا التركستاني). [34]

There have been no terrorist attacks in Xinjiang since 2017 following the Chinese government's responses against it such as mass surveillance, increased arrests, and a system of re-education camps, estimated to hold a million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority ethnic groups. [35] [36] [37]

Tibet

The Tibetan Autonomous Region, highlighted in red, is home to approximately half of the country's ethnic Tibetan population. Tibet in China (de-facto).svg
The Tibetan Autonomous Region, highlighted in red, is home to approximately half of the country's ethnic Tibetan population.

Tibet, the homeland of 7 million Tibetans, about half of whom live in the Tibetan Autonomous Region ("Tibet") and slightly more in the neighboring provinces of Qinghai, Yunnan, Gansu and Sichuan, lies for the most part within the People's Republic of China. For centuries Tibet resisted Chinese influence and control, with varying effectiveness. During periods when China was dominant, little more was involved than a Chinese governor and a garrison in Lhasa and Chinese administration in border areas such as Amdo and Kham with mixed populations of Tibetans and Chinese; no attempt was made by the Chinese to displace the Tibetan aristocracy or political and religious institutions of Tibet. From 1912 until 1950, Tibet experienced a period of de facto independence from Chinese rule, following the fall of the Qing dynasty. [38] However, in 1950, the Chinese annexed Tibet and its outlying areas, occupied it, displaced Tibetan political and religious institutions, and assumed governance of the nation. Tibetan resistance since 1950 has taken a variety of forms, including instances of armed resistance that has been described as terrorism by Chinese authorities.

Discontent surrounding the Chinese-implemented land reforms and assimilation policies in Tibetan areas led to revolts and intermittent warfare, although the Chinese central government took care to delay or lengthen the implementation of certain programs in comparison to the rest of the nation. Some Tibetan paramilitary groups during the period, such as Chushi Gangdruk, received covert material and training support from the Central Intelligence Agency and the Taiwan-based Kuomintang government. [39] The resistance culminated in the 1959 Tibetan Rebellion. The uprising was suppressed by Chinese forces, leading to the flight of the 14th Dalai Lama and some 100,000 other Tibetans to India. [40]

In the aftermath of the revolt, Chinese authorities imposed radical social reforms and further restrictions to religious freedom. [40] The Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution further intensified Tibetan resentment against Chinese rule and strengthened group identification. By 1980, Deng Xiaoping's ascension to leadership and the implementation of the Chinese economic reform program led to reform of earlier repressive policies against ethnic minorities, and granted nominal political autonomy to Tibet. [11] [40] While the Chinese government has invested considerably in the development of the Tibetan economy, education system and infrastructure, the continuing restrictions to religious expression and political participation resulted in resentment amongst the Tibetan populace, leading to the 1987–1989 Tibetan unrest. [40] The unrest prompted Chinese authorities to focus more on the economic, educational, and infrastructural development of the region, [11] [40] intensify efforts to undermine the religious and political influence of the Dalai Lama, and encourage ethnic Han migration to the region. [40]

Ogden notes that many Tibetans desire greater cultural and political autonomy, if not full independence, and outbreaks of violent clashes with authorities in the region occur only intermittently, such as in the 2008 Lhasa violence. [11] [ citation needed ] Ogden credits the low incidence of conventional terrorism in Tibet to an undereducated population, swift and harsh responses to terrorism by the Chinese state, and the pacific influence of Buddhism. [11] Nonetheless, there are segments of the Tibetan and Tibetan diasporic population who reject the leadership of the Dalai Lama and view violent opposition as the only viable route towards independence. [11] [41] Notable instances of violence against civilians include a series of attacks 1996 in the Tibetan capital of Lhasa, and a bombing in a public square in the city of Chengdu in April 2002, which Chinese authorities allege were carried out by Tibetan separatists. [42] [43] Chinese authorities adopt a broad definition of terrorism with respect to Tibet, and have labelled a variety of protests and expressions of opposition as terrorism. In 2012, for instance, authorities referred to the Dalai Lama's prayer sessions for Tibetan self-immolators as "terrorism in disguise." [44] Authorities have also ascribed terrorist motives to Tibetan exiles who call for independence, [45] and to Tibetan monks who travel to India without government authorization. [14]

Terrorism in contemporary China

Under China's criminal law, acts of terrorism can carry a prison sentence of up to ten years. Since 2001, over 7,000 Chinese citizens have been convicted on terrorism charges. [46] However, the law does not clearly define what constitutes a terrorist group or activity. In October 2011, Chinese authorities began crafting a bill that would more clearly define terrorism. [13] According to the state-run Xinhua News Agency, the draft bill defines terrorist acts as those that are intended "induce public fear or to coerce state or international organisations by means of violence, sabotage, threats or other tactics...These acts cause or aim to cause severe harm to society by causing casualties, bringing about major economic losses, damaging public facilities or disturbing social order." [13]

Human rights and international law experts have raised concerns over the implications of the bills in light of the lack of judicial independence in the People's Republic of China. [46] A representative of Human Rights Watch was reported as saying "strengthening law enforcement powers without appropriate judicial checks and balances is dangerous," and further noted that it was unclear how and by whom groups and individuals would be designated as terrorists. [46]

The government of the People's Republic of China identifies terrorism as one of "Three Evils", alongside separatism and religious fundamentalism. [6] These forces are seen by Beijing as inter-connected threats to social stability and national security. In particular, terrorism is viewed as a violent manifestation of ethnic separatism, and separatism is understood as a corollary of religious zealotry. [6]

Entities designated as terrorists threats

China's Ministry of Public Security issued a list of what it considers terrorist threats on 15 December 2003. These include the Eastern Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), the East Turkestan Liberation Organization (ETLO), the World Uyghur Congress, and the East Turkistan Information Center. The Ministry further named eleven individuals as terrorists. [47] [48]

The Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement, whose aim is to the establishment of a fundamentalist Muslim state to be called "East Turkistan" and the conversion of all Chinese people to Islam, [49] operates throughout Central Asia and claimed responsibility for over 200 acts of terrorism from 1990 to 2001, resulting in at least 162 deaths and 440 injuries. [50] Chinese authorities allege the group has a close relationship with al-Qaeda, and that it receives funding and training in Afghanistan. Rémi Castets has said that while "it is possible that these movements, and particularly the ETIM, might have had contacts with the bin Laden network and more probably with the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan," direct ties are likely minimal because of "bin Laden's silence on East Turkistan." [19] The group was considerably weakened following the American-led invasion of Afghanistan which saw the death of its leader Hasan Mahsum, as well as Emir Abu Mohammed, who was killed in October 2003 in raid on an al-Qaeda training camp in Waziristan by Pakistani forces. [51] [52] According to Stratfor, following the death of Mahsum, the group fractured and a successor movement with ties to Central Asian militants was formed in Afghanistan, under the leadership of Abdul Haq al-Turkistani. The reformed ETIM issuing several videos including threats to attack the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, although no such large-scale attacks took place. [53] Haq was allegedly killed by a US drone strike in Afghanistan in March 2010. [54]

ETIM's capabilities and existence as depicted by the Chinese government has raised doubt amongst Uyghur dissident groups; according to Uyghur expert Dru Gladney, the majority of information on ETIM derive from Chinese government sources and lack independent verification, [55] while other analysts noted that the ETIM was "obscure but not unknown" before the 9/11 attacks, having been documented for over 20 years by both Chinese and non-Chinese scholars. [56] Furthermore, Uyghur dissident groups criticized the inclusion of the World Uyghur Congress and East Turkistan Information Center, claiming that both groups are NGOs based in Germany which mainly serve to report information. [48] Chinese state-media published a statement from terrorism scholar Rohan Gunaratna, who claimed that the ETIM had "many sympathizers and supporters" within the WUC. [57]

Out of these groups, the ETIM and ETLO were also designated to be terrorist groups by Kazakhstan, [58] Kyrgyzstan, [59] and the United Nations. The United States refused China's request to designate the ETLO as such in 2003, [12] although US State Department says the ETLO has engaged "small politically-motivated bombings and armed attacks". [58]

Chronology of major events

Following is a partial list of events that have been described as terror attacks or attempted terrorist attacks by non-state actors in China:

DateLocationMain articleDescription
5 February 1992Urumqi, Xinjiang 5 February 1992 Urumqi Bombings Two buses exploded in Urumqi, resulting in at least 3 deaths, and 23 injured. [23] Unconfirmed reports indicated the attacks were perpetrated by the East Turkestan Islamic Party. [26] According to government documents, other bombs were discovered and defused in a local cinema and a residential building. [23]
13 January 1996 Lhasa, TibetFour major attacks were acknowledged, although unofficial sources reported more. The attacks generally targeted and successfully wounded people, whereas earlier bombings targeted buildings, such an obelisk on the Qinghai-Tibet highway. [60] On 13 January, a Tibetan Buddhist monk exploded a homemade bomb at a shop owned by Han Chinese. [61] Five days later on 18 January, the house of Sengchen Lobsang Gyaltsen, the head lama of the Panchen Lama's Tashilhunpo Monastery, was bombed. [62] Gyaltsen had opposed the 14th Dalai Lama to ordain Gyaincain Norbu in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy. He was out of his house at the time of the explosion, but a person nearby was "seriously injured", according to the South China Morning Post. [60] No group claimed responsibility for the bombings, but China blamed forces loyal to the Dalai Lama. [62] On 18 March, a bomb exploded at the regional government and local Communist Party compound. The government temporarily shut down tourism in Tibet in response. [63] China initially denied all of the blasts, but later attributed them to separatists. [64] The final blast of the year was detonated by remote control at 1:30 am on Christmas Day, in front of the central Lhasa municipal government offices. Five people were injured, including two night watchmen and three shopkeepers. [65] The official Radio Tibet called the blast "an appalling act of terrorism", and the Chinese government offered a $120,000 reward for the perpetrator. Vice Chairman of the Tibet Autonomous Region Gyamco called on residents to "heighten our alertness and strengthen preventive measures". [61]
10 July 1996 China-Pakistan border United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan claims to have killed 20 Chinese border guards in an attack on 4 July. [66]
27 February 1997Urumqi, Xinjiang Urumqi bus bombs Bombs detonated on three buses in Urumqi, leaving nine dead and 68 seriously wounded. [23] The Uyghur Liberation Party claims responsibility for the bombings. [23]
19 August 1997Urumqi, XinjiangTwo gunmen shot into a crowd after attempting to rob shopkeepers in Urumqi, killing 7 people and hospitalizing 11. [66]
1 October 1997 Kuytun, XinjiangUyghur separatists detonate a bomb in Kutyun, killing 22 people. [66]
February – April 1998Qaghiliq, XinjiangA series of six explosions occurred in February and March aimed at economic and industrial targets. The following month, authorities reported that bombs exploded at homes and offices of local communist party and public security agents. [23]
19 April 1998XinjiangA police officer and two separatist militants were killed in a shootout during a police siege of a separatist hideout. Another police officer was wounded and four separatists captured during the operation. [66]
25 June 1999Urumqi, XinjiangA bus is bombed by Uighur separatists, killing one and injuring 50. [66]
16 March 2001 Shijiazhuang, Hebei Shijiazhuang bombings 108 civilians were killed when several ANFO bombs (similar to those used by the IRA and in the 1993 World Trade Center and 1995 Oklahoma City bombings) tore through four city blocks in the city of Shijiazhang. [67] The perpetrator, 41-year-old Jin Ruchao, was allegedly motivated by hatred of his ex-wife. [68]

The bombings were described in the New York Times as the deadliest mass murder in decades, [69] and was characterized by China scholar Andrew Scobell as perhaps the worst terrorist act in the history of the People's Republic of China. [8]

3 April 2002Chengdu, SichuanOn 3 April 2002, a bomb described as a "simple fuse device" detonated in Tianfu Square in Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan. According to local media reports, one individual was seriously injured, and many others were hurt in the blast. Two men were apprehended: 52-year-old Tibetan religious leader Tenzin Deleg Rinpoche, and 26-year-old Lobsang Dondrub. [42] On 2 December, Rinpoche was given a two-year suspended death sentence for "causing explosions [and] inciting the separation of the state." Dondrub was also sentenced to death, and executed on 26 January 2003. The men maintained their innocence, and international observers expressed concerns over the legality of the trial. [40] [43]
5 January 2007Pamirs Plateau, Xinjiang Xinjiang raid Chinese armed police raided a suspected East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) training camp in Akto County in the Pamirs plateau near the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. [70] A spokesperson for the Xinjiang Public Security Bureau said that 18 terror suspects were killed and 17 captured. The raid also resulted in the death of one Chinese police officer and the injury of another. The Bureau said they confiscated hand grenades, guns, and makeshift explosives from the site. [70]
9 March 2008Urumqi, XinjiangState-run Xinhua News Agency reported that authorities had successfully foiled a terrorist attack on a commercial jet. [71] The Southern China flight departed from Urumqi, and made an emergency landing in Lanzhou while en route to Beijing. Two individuals were reportedly taken into custody after flight crew discovered flammable material in the plane's toilet. [71] Xinjiang Governor Nuer Baikeli told reporters that the perpetrators "attempted to create an air disaster," but authorities provided no further details. [72] [73]
4 August 2008 Kashgar, Xinjiang 2008 Kashgar attack ETIM militants reportedly drove a truck into a group of approximately 70 jogging policemen. According to official Chinese media accounts, they then got out of the truck wielding machetes, and lobbed grenades at the officers, killing 16 people. [74] Police investigators recovered explosives as well as a homemade firearm. [75] [76]
10 August 2008 Kuqa County, XinjiangXinhua reported that seven men armed with homemade explosives reportedly drove taxis into government buildings, in Kuqa, Xinjiang, injuring at least two police officers and a security guard. Five of the assailants were shot and killed. [77] [78] The attacks began at 2:30 am when five assailants drove taxis into the local public security and industry and commerce buildings. [78] The Communist Party chief in Xinjiang condemned the attack as an act of terrorism, and suspected the ETIM was responsible. [79]
12 August 2008Yamanya, XinjiangChinese media reported that three security officers were killed in a stabbing incident in Yamanya, near Kashgar in Xinjiang. [80] The report did not specify what the attacker's affiliations were. [80]
5 July 2009Ürümqi, Xinjiang July 2009 Ürümqi riots Eligen Imibakhi, chairman of the Standing Committee of the Xinjiang Regional People's Congress, blamed 5 July riots on the "Three evils", which were "extremism, separatism and terrorism". [81] [82]
19 August 2010 Aksu, Xinjiang 2010 Aksu bombing According to Chinese media reports, six ethnic Uyghur men were allegedly involved in loading a vehicle with explosives and driving into a group of security officers at a highway intersection near Aksu, Xinjiang. Seven people, including two attackers, were killed, according to police. [83] In the wake of the attack, authorities in the region vowed to crack down "relentlessly" on criminal activity. [84]
18 July 2011 Hotan, Xinjiang 2011 Hotan attack Chinese media reported that 18 people died when 18 young Uyghur men stormed a police station in the city of Hotan. The men stabbed a security guard and two female hostages, and killed another security guard with a bomb. The attack ended when security officers shot and killed 14 of the attackers. Chinese media described the attackers as rioters and thugs, though subsequent accounts called the event a terrorist attack. [85] The Germany-based World Uyghur Congress claimed that the authorities provoked clashes by opening fire on Uyghurs participating in a non-violent protest against heavy-handed security crackdowns in the city. [85] [86] The Turkistan Islamic Party later claimed responsibility for the attack. [87]
30–31 July 2011Kashgar, Xinjiang 2011 Kashgar attacks At least 18 people died in a series of alleged terrorist attacks in the city of Kashgar. According to state-run media accounts, the violence began when two Uyghur men hijacked a truck, ran it into a crowded street, and started stabbing people, killing six. [88] The attack ended when the assailants were overpowered by the crowd, which killed one attacker. On the second day, state media reported that a "group of armed terrorists" stormed a restaurant, killed the owner and a waiter, and set it ablaze. They then proceeded to indiscriminately kill four more civilians. [89] Armed clashes then reportedly ensured, ending with police capturing or killing the attackers. [90] The Turkistan Islamic Party later claimed responsibility for the attack. [87] One of the suspects appeared in a TIP video training in Pakistan. [91]
29 June 2012Xinjiang Tianjin Airlines Flight GS7554 Chinese official media reported that six men attempted to hijack Tianjin Airlines flight GS7554 from Hotan to Urumqi, Xinjiang. The men reportedly sought to gain access to cockpit ten minutes after takeoff, but were stopped by passengers and crew. A spokesperson for the Xinjiang government said the men were ethnic Uyghurs. [92] Xinhua reported at least 10 passengers and crew were injured when six hijackers tried to take control of the aircraft. [93] The World Uyghur Congress contested the official account of events, claiming instead that a dispute over seating broke out between Uyghurs and ethnic Han. The WUC suggested the event was being used as a pretext to "reinforce repression" in Xinjiang. [94]
24 April 2013Xinjiang 2013 Xinjiang ethnic clashes It was an incident of ethnic clash that took place between Muslim Uyghur and Han Chinese community. As reported by BBC [95] nearly 21 people were killed in the incident including 15 police officers and local government officials.
26 June 2013Lukqun, XinjiangAt least 35 people were killed in clashes between ethnic Uyghurs and police in the deadliest altercation in the region since 2009. Chinese official media reported that a group of 17 knife-wielding Uyghur men attacked a police station and government building. Chinese authorities pronounced the event a terrorist attack, and blamed separatists and overseas forces for fomenting tensions. [96] The World Uyghur Congress blamed the event on "continued suppression and provocation" by Chinese authorities in the region. [97] Foreign media outlets were prevented from visiting the area to investigate. [98]
28 October 2013Tiananmen Square, Beijing 2013 Tiananmen Square attack A car blaze at Tiananmen Square that killed five and injured dozens was a premeditated terrorist attack, Chinese police said after making five arrests in connection with the case. [27]
1 March 2014Kunming, Yunnan Kunming station massacre A group of knife-wielding men and women attacked people at the Kunming Railway Station. The attack left 33 civilians and 4 perpetrators dead with more than 140 others injured. [99]
30 April 2014Ürümqi, Xinjiang April 2014 Ürümqi attack A knife attack and bombing occurred in the Chinese city of Ürümqi, the capital of China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The attack left three people dead and seventy-nine others injured.
22 May 2014Ürümqi, Xinjiang May 2014 Ürümqi attack Two sport utility vehicles (SUVs) carrying five assailants were driven into a busy street market in Ürümqi. Up to a dozen explosives were thrown at shoppers from the windows of the SUVs. The SUVs crashed into shoppers then collided with each other and exploded. 43 people were killed, including 4 of the assailants, and more than 90 wounded.
28 November 2014XinjiangMilitants with knives and explosives attacked civilians, 15 dead and 14 injured. 14 of the 15 deaths were attackers. [100]
6 March 2015GuangzhouThree ethnic Uyghur assailants with long knives attacked civilians at Guangzhou train station, 13 injured. [101] [102]
24 June 2015XinjiangGroup killed several police with knives and bombs at traffic checkpoint before 15 suspects died in armed response. [103]
18 September 2015Aksu, Xinjiang Sogan colliery attack An unidentified group of knife-wielding men attacked off-duty workers at a coalmine, killing 50, among them 5 police officers. [104]
29 December 2016XinjiangIslamic militants drove a vehicle into a yard at the county Communist party offices and set off a bomb but were all shot dead. Three people were wounded and one other died. [105]

Terrorist incidents by year

Terrorist incidents in China according to the Global Terrorism Database [106]
YearNumber of
incidents		DeathsInjuries
201913012
2018122
201761676
201651318
20151612383
201437322478
2013126071
201242738
201141932
20101714
2009718656
20082023133
2007000
2006111
20051122
2004245
20033116
20022118
2001132565
2000412
19992550
1998250150
19971857259
19966223106
199586198
1994131896
1993100
19925920
1991100
19901210
198932012

Counter-terrorism

Domestic counter-terrorism

A soldier on patrol Lhasa, Tibet. Chinese authorities have launched "strike-hard" campaigns targeting unsanctioned religious activity and separatism. Military of Tibet.jpg
A soldier on patrol Lhasa, Tibet. Chinese authorities have launched "strike-hard" campaigns targeting unsanctioned religious activity and separatism.

According to political scientist Chung Chien-peng, following a spate of unrest and violence in Xinjiang and Tibet in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Chinese authorities adopted a variety of approach to suppress what it considers the "three evils": terrorism, separatism, and religious fundamentalism, which the government considers to be interconnected threats to its authorities. [6] To combat these, the government promoted economic development through investments in infrastructure, tourism, and capital investment to spur growth, and encouraged ethnic Han migration into the western regions. In addition, authorities launched "strike hard" campaigns against crime, which also had the effect of targeting expressions of separatism and unauthorized religious practice. [6]

Chung noted that in recent years, Chinese authorities have allowed for a gradual expansion of individual freedoms in many spheres, all the while maintaining strict control over religious, cultural, and literary associations of ethnic minorities in Xinjiang and Tibet. [6] In 1997, a "strike hard" campaign began in Tibet and Xinjiang involving in tightly controlling religious activities and festivals. In Tibet, authorities sought to curtail the influence of the Dalai Lama by banning all displays of his image, and in 1995, authorities replaced his choice of the number two Panchen Lama with a Beijing-approved candidate. [6] In Xinjiang, authorities placed restrictions on unofficial religious practices, and closely monitored Muslims returning from madrasah schools overseas. [6]

Chung also noted that corresponding to the launch of strike-hard campaigns and economic stimulus efforts, there was an apparent decrease in the level of organized violent protest or bombings in the Western autonomous regions. Whereas levels of anti-government violence were high from 1987 to 1997, reported instances were virtually non-existent in the several years that followed. [6] In the aftermath of the strike-hard campaigns, Tibetan and Uyghur dissident groups overseas have adjusted their strategies in promoting their causes: as of 1998 the Dalai Lama has no longer called for outright Tibetan independence, and Uyghur groups have become more adept in framing their cause as one of human rights and free elections. Chung noted that while instances of violent organized protest and bombings have decreased, heightened tensions between local ethnic groups and the Han Chinese who have migrated into Xinjiang and Tibet en masse since the 1990s. [6] According to Chung, in terms of public relations and reporting incidences[ spelling? ] of violence, local authorities are encouraged to take accounts of foreign investments so that they would not be discouraged by violence, but at the same time, authorities needed justifications to initiate actions against separatist groups. [6]

International cooperation

The government of the People's Republic of China has engaged in cooperation at the bilateral and multilateral level to gain support for its efforts to combat terrorism and ethnic separatism. This has increased following the September 11 attacks in the United States, which led to the global War on Terror.

Much of this cooperation involves the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, which includes several Central Asian states home to large ethnic Uyghur populations. The Chinese government has periodically requested that authorities in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan crack down on Uyghur secessionists, [6] and that they extradite suspected terrorists and separatists to China. [107] The Government of Kazakhstan has consistently extradited Uyghur terrorist suspects to China [108] and in 2006 participated in a large-scale, joint counter-terrorism drill. [109]

The Chinese and Kyrgyz governments increased security along their borders with each other and Tajikistan in January 2007 after Chinese government officials expressed concern that possible terrorists were traveling through Xinjiang and Central Asia to carry out attacks. The warning followed a high-profile raid on a training camp in Akto County, Xinjiang run by suspected East Turkestan Islamic Movement members. [110]

In 2006, American forces captured 22 Uyghur militants from combat zones in Afghanistan and Pakistan on information that they were linked to Al-Qaeda. [111] They were imprisoned for five to seven years in Guantanamo Bay, where they testified that they were trained by ETIM leader Abdul Haq, at an ETIM training camp. After being reclassified as No Longer Enemy Combatant, a panel of judges ordered them released into the United States, as they could not be released back to China because of human rights concerns. [112] A Chinese government spokesman denounced the move as a violation of international law and demanded the return of the men to China.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Turkestan</span> Geographical region in Central Asia

East Turkestan or East Turkistan, also called Uyghuristan, is a loosely-defined geographical region in the northwestern part of the People's Republic of China, which varies in meaning by context and usage. The term was coined in the 19th century by Russian Turkologists, including Nikita Bichurin, who intended the name to replace the common Western term for the region, "Chinese Turkestan", which referred to the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang or Xinjiang as a whole during the Qing dynasty. Beginning in the 17th century, Altishahr, which means "Six Cities" in Uyghur, became the Uyghur name for the Tarim Basin. Uyghurs also called the Tarim Basin "Yettishar," which means "Seven Cities," and even "Sekkizshahr", which means "Eight Cities" in Uyghur. Chinese dynasties from the Han dynasty to the Tang dynasty had called an overlapping area the "Western Regions".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkistan Islamic Party</span> Islamic extremist terrorist organization in China

The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is a Uyghur Islamic extremist organization founded in Pakistan by Hasan Mahsum. Its stated goals are to establish an Islamic state in Xinjiang and Central Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China</span>

Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE. There are an estimated 17–25 million Muslims in China, less than 2 percent of the total population. Though Hui Muslims are the most numerous group, the greatest concentration of Muslims reside in northwestern China's Xinjiang autonomous region, which contains a significant Uyghur population. Lesser yet significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten of these groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Turkestan independence movement</span> Independence movement in Central Asia

The East Turkestan independence movement is a political movement that seeks the independence of East Turkestan, a large and sparsely-populated region in northwest China, as a nation state for the Uyghur people. The region is currently administered by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Within the movement, there is widespread support for the region to be renamed, since "Xinjiang" is seen by independence activists as a colonial name. "East Turkestan" is the best-known proposed name as it is the historical geographic name of the region and the name of the two independent states that briefly existed in the region in the first half of the 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Turkestan Liberation Organization</span> Uyghur secessionist organization

The East Turkestan Liberation Organization (ETLO) was a secessionist Uyghur organization that advocated for an independent Uyghur state named East Turkestan in the Western Chinese province known as Xinjiang. The organization was established in Turkey in late 1997 to fight against the Chinese government in Xinjiang, a territory of ethnic Uyghur majority.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hasan Mahsum</span> Uyghur militant

Hasan Mahsum, also known as Abu-Muhammad al-Turkestani and Ashan Sumut, was an Uyghur militant who was the leader of the Turkistan Islamic Party, an Islamic extremist group suspected of having ties with Al Qaeda. He was shot dead in a counter-terrorism operation on October 2, 2003 by the Pakistani Army.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2007 Xinjiang raid</span> Chinese military operation during the Xinjiang conflict

The January 2007 Xinjiang raid was carried out on January 5, 2007, by Chinese paramilitary police against a suspected East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) training camp in Akto County in the Pamir plateau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China (1912–present)</span>

After the fall of the Qing dynasty following the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912), Sun Yat-sen, who led the new Republic of China (1912–1949), immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Chinese Muslims suffered political repression along with all other religious groups in China, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Uyghur unrest</span>

The 2008 Uyghur unrest is a loose name for incidents of communal violence by Uyghur people in Hotan and Qaraqash county of Western China, with incidents in March, April, and August 2008. The protests were spurred by the death in police custody of Mutallip Hajim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Kashgar attack</span> Terrorist attack in Kashgar

The 2008 Kashgar attack occurred on the morning of 4 August 2008, in the city of Kashgar in the Western Chinese province of Xinjiang. According to Chinese government sources, it was a terrorist attack perpetrated by two men with suspected ties to the Uyghur separatist movement. The men reportedly drove a truck into a group of jogging police officers, and proceeded to attack them with grenades and machetes, resulting in the death of sixteen officers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghulja incident</span> 1997 violent event in the Uyghur-Han conflict in Xinjiang

The Ghulja, Gulja, or Yining incident was the culmination of the Ghulja protests of 1997, a series of demonstrations in the city of Yining—known as Ghulja in Uyghur—in the Xinjiang autonomous region of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World Uyghur Congress</span> Cultural and political organization

The World Uyghur Congress (WUC) is a US funded international organization of exiled Uyghur groups that claims to "represent the collective interest of the Uyghur people" both inside and outside of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. The World Uyghur Congress claims to be a nonviolent and peaceful movement that opposes what it considers to be the Chinese "occupation" of 'East Turkestan' and advocates rejection of totalitarianism, religious intolerance and terrorism as an instrument of policy. It has been called the "largest representative body of Uyghurs around the world" and uses more moderate methods of human rights advocacy to influence the Chinese government within the international community in contrast to more radical Uyghur organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang</span> Autonomous region of China

Xinjiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia. Being the largest province-level division of China by area and the 8th-largest country subdivision in the world, Xinjiang spans over 1.6 million square kilometres (620,000 sq mi) and has about 25 million inhabitants. Xinjiang borders the countries of Afghanistan, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. The rugged Karakoram, Kunlun and Tian Shan mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract regions are claimed by India but administered by China. Xinjiang also borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. The most well-known route of the historic Silk Road ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2011 Kashgar attacks</span> Series of knife and bomb attacks in Xinjiang, China

The 2011 Kashgar attacks were a series of knife and bomb attacks in Kashgar, Xinjiang, China on July 30 and 31, 2011. On July 30, two Uyghur men hijacked a truck, killed its driver, and drove into a crowd of pedestrians. They got out of the truck and stabbed six people to death and injured 27 others. One of the attackers was killed by the crowd; the other was brought into custody. On July 31, a chain of two explosions started a fire at a downtown restaurant. A group of armed Uyghur men killed two people inside of the restaurant and four people outside, injuring 15 other people. Police shot five suspects dead, detained four, and killed two others who initially escaped arrest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anwar Yusuf Turani</span> Uyghur independence activist (born 1962)

Anwar Yusuf Turani is a self proclaimed ethnic Uyghur nationalist and separatist leader. Born into a family branded counter-revolutionary by the Chinese government, Turani was raised in a labor camp where he faced economic hardship and political oppression. He attended Kashgar Teacher's College and graduated from the Department of Physics in July 1983. Turani came to the United States on August 12, 1988 and became the first Uyghur political asylee. In 1995, he established the East Turkistan National Freedom Center (ETNFC), a non-profit human rights organization based in Washington, D.C. He is the first person to start the East Turkistan independence movement in the United States. Having spearheaded the formation of the East Turkistan Government in Exile (ETGE) on September 14, 2004 in Washington, D.C., Turani went on to become the first Prime Minister of the entity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang conflict</span> Geopolitical conflict in Central Asia

The Xinjiang conflict, also known as the East Turkistan conflict, Uyghur–Chinese conflict or Sino-East Turkistan conflict, is an ethnic geopolitical conflict in what is now China's far-northwest autonomous region of Xinjiang, also known as East Turkistan. It is centred around the Uyghurs, a Turkic ethnic group who constitute a plurality of the region's population.

On 26 June 2013, rioting broke out in Shanshan County, in the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. 35 people died in the riots, including 22 civilians, two police officers and eleven attackers.

On 28 October 2013, a car ran over pedestrians and crashed in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China, in a terrorist suicide attack. Five people died in the incident; three inside the vehicle and two others nearby. Police identified the driver as Usmen Hasan and the two passengers as his wife, Gulkiz Gini, and his mother, Kuwanhan Reyim. An additional 38 people were injured.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2014 Kunming attack</span> Knife attack at Kunming Railway Station in Kunming, Yunnan, China

On 1 March 2014, a group of 8 knife-wielding terrorists attacked passengers in the Kunming Railway Station in Kunming, Yunnan, China, killing 31 people, and wounding 143 others. The attackers pulled out long-bladed knives and stabbed and slashed passengers at random. Four assailants were shot to death by police on the spot and one injured perpetrator was captured. Police announced on 3 March that the six-man, two-woman group had been neutralized after the arrest of three remaining suspects.

On the early morning of Wednesday, 30 July 2014, Juma Tahir, the imam of China's largest mosque, the Id Kah Mosque in northwestern Kashgar, was stabbed to death by three young male Uyghur extremists. Religious leaders across denominations condemned the attack.

References

  1. ↑ John Philip Jenkins (ed.). "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2006.
  2. ↑ "Terrorism". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Bartleby.com. 2000. Archived from the original on 20 June 2006. Retrieved 11 August 2006.
  3. ↑ Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September Archived 29 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine , Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002.
  4. ↑ Thalif Deen. POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism Archived 11 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Kam V. Wong, "Police Practices in Global Perspective," John Eterno ed., (Rowman & Littlefield, 2011).
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Chung Chien-peng. "Confronting Terrorism and Other Evils in China: All Quiet on the Western Front?. In China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Volume 4 Issue 2, pp 75–87. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  7. ↑ "U.S. Forces Strike Taliban, East Turkestan Islamic Movement Training Sites". U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Martin I. Wayne, "China's war on terrorism: counter-insurgency, politics, and internal security,” (New York, NY: Routeledge, 2008).
  9. ↑ "国务院新闻办公室发布《中国的反恐怖主义法律制度体系与实践》白皮书". 人民日报 (in Chinese (China)). 24 January 2024. Archived from the original on 24 January 2024. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  10. ↑ "确保反恐怖主义工作在法治轨道上运行". 人民日报 (in Chinese (China)). 24 January 2024. Archived from the original on 24 January 2024.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Ogden, Suzanne. "Inoculation against Terrorism in China" in William J. Crotty ed. Democratic development and political terrorism: the global perspective. Northeaster, 2005.
  12. 1 2 3 Amnesty International, "People’s Republic Of China: Uighurs Fleeing Persecution As China Wages Its ‘War On Terror’" Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine , 7 July 2004.
  13. 1 2 3 BBC News,China draft bill defines terrorism amid 'real threat' Archived 29 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine , 25 October 2011.
  14. 1 2 Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2005 Annual Report, Freedom of Religion Archived 8 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 2005. Quote: “Sichuan authorities sometimes impute terrorist motives to Tibetan monks who travel to India without permission.” [...] "Religious repression in Xinjiang is severe, driven by Party policies that equate peaceful Uighur religious practices with terrorism and religious extremism."
  15. 1 2 3 4 University of Maryland Minorities at Risk Project, Assessment for Turkmen in China Archived 22 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine .
  16. ↑ Marketos, Thrassy N. (2009). China's Energy Geopolitics: The Shanghai Cooperation Organization and Central Asia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   9780415456906.
  17. ↑ Lüthi, Lorenz M. (2008). The Sino-Soviet split: Cold War in the communist world. Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691135908.
  18. 1 2 Castets, Rémi (2003). "The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – The Malaise Grows". China Perspectives. 2003 (5). doi: 10.4000/chinaperspectives.648 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
  19. 1 2 "The Chinese regime and the Uyghur dilemma" Archived 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Summary of
  20. ↑ Wayne 2007, p. 46.
  21. ↑ Millward 2007, p. 341.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Van Wie Davis, Elizabath. "Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China". Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Millward, James (2004). "Violent Separatism in Xinjiang: A Critical Assessment" (PDF). Foreign Studies 6. East-West Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 February 2012.
  24. 1 2 Gus Martin, "Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues," (Sage Publications: 2003), ISBN   978-0-7619-2616-0.
  25. ↑ Jim Yardley, A Spectator's Role for China's Muslims Archived 10 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine , The New York Times, 19 February 2006.
  26. 1 2 University of Maryland Minorities at Risk Project, “Chronology for Turkmen in China” Archived 22 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine .
  27. 1 2 3 4 Sun, Yi (2024). "Necessitated by Geopolitics: China's Economic and Cultural Initiatives in Central Asia". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.). China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment. Leiden University Press. p. 154. ISBN   9789087284411. JSTOR   jj.15136086.
  28. ↑ "55 people sentenced in mass trial in China's Xinjiang". China National News. Archived from the original on 29 May 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
  29. ↑ "TIP Division in Syria Releases Video Promoting Cause, Inciting for Jihad". SITE Institute. 6 June 2014. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2014.
  30. ↑ "Ṣawt al-Islām presents a new video message from Ḥizb al-Islāmī al-Turkistānī [Turkistan Islamic Party] in Bilād al-Shām: "Conquest of Jisr al-Shaghūr"". JIHADOLOGY. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  31. ↑ A short video showing the opening of yesterdays ongoing battle in Jisr ash-Shugur. 22 April 2015. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015– via YouTube.
  32. ↑ Weiss, Caleb (23 April 2015). "Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria involved in new Idlib offensive". Long War Journal. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  33. ↑ Weiss, Caleb (30 April 2015). "Turkistan Islamic Party had significant role in recent Idlib offensive". Long War Journal. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  34. ↑ Zelin, Aaron Y. (30 June 2014). "Syria: The Epicenter of Future Jihad". The Washington Institute. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  35. ↑ "China has turned Xinjiang into a police state like no other". The Economist. 31 May 2018. ISSN   0013-0613 . Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  36. ↑ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (16 November 2019). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 16 November 2019.
  37. ↑ Further independent reports:
  38. ↑ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984) [1962]. Tibet & Its History (Second, Revised and Updated ed.). Shambhala. pp. 116 to 124, 134 to 138, 146 and 147, 178 and 179. ISBN   0-87773-292-2.
  39. ↑ Knaus, John Kenneth. Orphans of the Cold War: America And The Tibetan Struggle For Survival
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Human Rights Watch, Trials of a Tibetan Monk: The Case of Tenzin Delek Archived 16 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine , February 2004, Volume 16, No 1.
  41. ↑ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, Annual Report 2006 : Tibet Archived 6 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 2006.
  42. 1 2 Erik Eckholm, China Court Rejects Appeal of Tibetan Monk Sentenced to Death for Separatism Archived 28 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The New York Times, 27 January 2003.
  43. 1 2 Congressional-Executive Commission on China, The Execution of Lobsang Dondrub and the Case Against Tenzin Deleg The Law, the Courts, and the Debate on Legality Archived 16 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine .
  44. ↑ Tania Branigan, ‘Dalai Lama's prayers for Tibetans 'terrorism in disguise', China says’ Archived 10 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Guardian, 19 October 2011.
  45. ↑ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, Annual Report 2006 : Tibet Archived 6 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 2006. Quote: “The Chinese government portrays as terrorists some Tibetans living outside of China who call for independence, but has not provided evidence for this designation.”
  46. 1 2 3 Ananth Krishnan, Concern as China mulls over anti-terror laws Archived 26 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine , The Hindu, 26 October 2011.
  47. ↑ "China identifies Eastern Turkistan terrorist organizations, terrorists". GlobalSecurity.org. 16 December 2003. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2010. BEIJING, 15 December (Xinhuanet) – China's Ministry of Public Security Monday issued a list of the first batch of identified "Eastern Turkistan" terrorist organizations and 11 members of the groups. [...] This is the first time China issued a list of terrorist organizations and terrorists.
  48. 1 2 British Broadcasting Corporation, "China issues 'terrorist' list" Archived 10 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 15 December 2003.
  49. ↑ Bashir, Shaykh (1 July 2008). "Why Are We Fighting China?" (PDF). NEFA Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ...We are fighting China... China is an enemy who has invaded Muslim countries and occupies Muslim East Turkestan. There is no greater obligation, aside from belief in Allah, than expelling the enemies of Muslims from our countries.... We are fighting China to make them testify that 'there is no God but Allah, Mohammed is the Messenger of Allah' and make them convert to Islam....
  50. ↑ "Al-Qaida: Dead or captured". NBC News. 22 June 2005. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  51. ↑ "China: The Evolution of ETIM". Stratfor. 13 May 2008. Archived from the original on 17 August 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  52. ↑ Guang, Pan (May 2006). "East Turkestan Terrorism and the Terrorist Arc: china's Post-9/11 Anti-Terror Strategy". China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 4 (2). ISSN   1653-4212.
  53. ↑ "China: ETIM's Direct Threat to the Olympics". Stratfor. 25 July 2008. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  54. ↑ "Xinjiang fighter 'killed by drone'". Al Jazeera. 2 March 2010. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2010. The leader of a Chinese separatist movement, believed to have links with al-Qaeda, has been killed in a US missile strike, Pakistani and Taliban officials have said.
  55. ↑ "Freed from Guantánamo, a Uighur clings to asylum dreams in Sweden". The Christian Science Monitor. 24 April 2009. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
  56. ↑ Reed, J. Todd; Diana Raschke (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. ABC-CLIO. pp. 14–16, 46–47.
  57. ↑ "Xinjiang riot hits regional anti-terror nerve". China Daily . Xinhua News Agency. 18 July 2009. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
  58. 1 2 Uyghur group added to Kazakh terror list Archived 15 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
  59. ↑ Islamic groups banned in Kyrgyzstan Archived 28 August 2004 at the Wayback Machine Central Asia Caucasus Institute
  60. 1 2 "Tibetan Newspaper Sabotaged; Lama's House Bombed". TibetInfoNet. 28 January 1996. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  61. 1 2 "Bomb at Government Offices Wounds 5 in Tibetan Capital". The New York Times. 30 December 1996. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  62. 1 2 Hilton, Isabel (2001). The Search for the Panchen Lama. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 295.
  63. ↑ "Bomb Explodes outside Lhasa Party Headquarters". Tibet Information Network. 22 March 1996. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  64. ↑ Buckley, Michael (2006). Tibet . Bradt Travel Guides. p.  133. ISBN   9781841621647.
  65. ↑ Poole, Teresa (30 December 1996). "Tibetan activists set off Lhasa bomb". The Independent. UK. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  66. 1 2 3 4 5 "Chronology for Turkmen in China". Refworld. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  67. ↑ BBC, China says 108 killed in blasts Archived 10 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine , 17 March 2001.
  68. ↑ People's Daily, Hatred, Revenge Motive for Fatal Shijiazhuang Explosions Archived 18 August 2013 at archive.today , 16 March 2001.
  69. ↑ Gittings, John (20 March 2001). "Manhunt for mass killer fails to pacify Chinese". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016.
  70. 1 2 British Broadcasting Service, China 'anti-terror' raid kills 18 Archived 10 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine , 8 January 2007.
  71. 1 2 Ben Blanchard, China foils attempted terror attack on flight Archived 25 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine , Reuters, 9 March 2008.
  72. ↑ Geoffrey York, Olympic terror plot foiled, Beijing says Archived 13 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine , The Globe and Mail, 10 March 2008.
  73. ↑ Report: China thwarts two terrorist attacks Archived 12 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine CNN
  74. ↑ "Chinese border assault kills 16". BBC News. 4 August 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  75. ↑ 喀什恐怖襲擊部署一個月. Ming Pao (in Chinese). Hong Kong. 6 August 2008. Archived from the original on 18 August 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  76. ↑ "China tightens security following deadly attack". CBC. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  77. ↑ Parry, Richard Lloyd (11 August 2008). "China's Uighur rebels switch to suicide bombs". The Sunday Times. UK. Archived from the original on 14 August 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
  78. 1 2 Moore, Malcolm (10 August 2008). "China beefs up security in Kuqa after new terror attack". The Daily Telegraph. Urumqi. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  79. ↑ "Blasts, gunfire kill at least eight in China's far west (2nd roundup)". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 10 August 2008. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  80. 1 2 AFP, "Three dead as unrest flares in China's restive Xinjiang", 12 August 2008.
  81. ↑ "Xinjiang to speed up legislation against separatism, regional top lawmaker". Chinaview.cn. Xinhua News Agency. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 22 July 2009.
  82. ↑ "After Riots, China to Promote Anti-Separatist Laws". The Jakarta Post. Associated Press. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 19 August 2009. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
  83. ↑ David Barboza, Blast Kills 7 in Restive Chinese Region Archived 10 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine , The New York Times, 19 August 2010.
  84. ↑ Reuters, China detains four over attack on Xinjiang police Archived 17 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine , 25 August 2010.
  85. 1 2 Olesen, Alexa (19 July 2011). "China says 14 extremists killed in Xinjiang attack". Associated Press. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  86. ↑ The Economist, “Let them shoot hoops” Archived 27 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 30 July 2011.
  87. 1 2 "Islamic militant group 'behind Xinjiang attacks'". BBC News. 8 September 2011. Archived from the original on 15 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  88. ↑ BBC, “China: Unrest in Kashgar, Xinjiang, leaves 15 dead” Archived 13 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine , 31 July 2011.
  89. ↑ Michael Wines, “Deadly Violence Strikes Chinese City Racked by Ethnic Tensions” Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The New York Times, 31 July 2011.
  90. ↑ Cheng, Yongsun; Yu, Xiaodong (October 2011). "The Bloody Weekend". News China: 23–25.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  91. ↑ Zenn, Jacob (2 September 2011). "Catch-22 of Xinjiang as a gateway". Asia Times . Kashgar. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 9 October 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  92. ↑ Malcolm Moore, Chinese plane in Xinjiang hijack attempt Archived 18 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine , The Daily Telegraph, 29 June 2012.
  93. ↑ "Plane hijacking foiled in west China, 6 held". 30 June 2012.
  94. ↑ AFP, China says plane hijack attempt thwarted Archived 19 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine , 29 June 2012.
  95. ↑ "China's Xinjiang hit by deadly clashes". BBC. 24 April 2013. Archived from the original on 26 April 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
  96. ↑ Matt Schiavenza, 35 People Dead in Chinese Mass Murder: What Happened? Archived 19 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Atlantic, 3 July 2013.
  97. ↑ Reuters, “China calls Xinjiang unrest a ‘terrorist attack,’ ups death toll to 35” Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine , 28 June 2013.
  98. ↑ Associated Press, “Death toll from violence in China’s Xinjiang region rises to 35: state media” Archived 5 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine , 28 June 2013.
  99. ↑ Sun, Yi (2024). "Necessitated by Geopolitics: China's Economic and Cultural Initiatives in Central Asia". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.). China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment. Leiden University Press. p. 154. ISBN   9789087284411. JSTOR   jj.15136086.
  100. ↑ "Xinjiang attack leaves at least 15 dead". TheGuardian.com . 29 November 2014. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
  101. ↑ "Third knifeman still at large after Guangzhou railway attack that left 13 injured". 6 March 2015. Archived from the original on 7 September 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  102. ↑ Phillips, Tom (6 March 2015). "Nine people injured in a knife attack in Guangzhou, police say". Archived from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
  103. ↑ "China: Uighurs blamed as 18 die in Xinjiang attack, says report". TheGuardian.com . 24 June 2015. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
  104. ↑ "At least 50 reported to have died in attack on coalmine in Xinjiang in September". Reuters. 1 October 2015. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
  105. ↑ "Xinjiang attack: four 'terrorists' and one bystander killed, says China". TheGuardian.com . 29 December 2016. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
  106. ↑ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (2018). "Entire GTD dataset". Global Terrorism Database . University of Maryland. Archived from the original (XLSX) on 22 August 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
  107. ↑ Graham Fuller and Jonathan Lipman, "Islam in Xinjiang," in S. Frederick Starr Ed. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland (ME Sharpe, 2004).
  108. ↑ Kazakhstan exacerbates "religious threat" by maneuvering between Beijing and Washington Archived 17 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine Jamestown Foundation
  109. ↑ China/Kazakhstan: Forces Hold First-Ever Joint Terrorism Exercises Archived 23 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty/Radio Liberty
  110. ↑ China: Border security tightened amid 'terrorist infiltration' warning Archived 27 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty/Radio Liberty
  111. ↑ Fletcher, Holly; Bajoria, Jayshree (31 July 2008). "The East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM)". Backgrounder. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 3 August 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  112. ↑ de Vogue, Ariane; Powell, Dennis; Ryan, Jason (24 April 2009). "Guantanamo Uyghur Detainees: Coming to America?". ABC News. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.