History of Islam in China

Last updated

The history of Islam in China dates back to 1,300 years ago. [1] [2] Currently, Chinese Muslims are a minority group in China, representing between 0.45% to 1.8% of the total population according to the latest estimates. [3] Although Hui Muslims are the most numerous group, [4] the greatest concentration of Chinese Muslims are located in Northwestern China, mostly in the autonomous region of Xinjiang, which holds a significant Uyghur population. [1] Lesser but significant Chinese Muslim populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu, and Qinghai. [5] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Sunnī Muslim. [5]

Contents

Origin of Islam in China

The Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in the world, traditionally believed to have been built by Sa'd ibn Abi Wakkas. Huaisheng Mosque Dec 2007.jpg
The Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in the world, traditionally believed to have been built by Saʿd ibn Abī Waḳḳāṣ.

The history of Islam in China goes back to the earliest years of Islam. [1] According to Chinese Muslims' traditional accounts, Muslim missionaries reached China through an embassy sent by ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (644–656 CE), the third rāshidūn caliph, in 651 CE, less than twenty years after the death of Muhammad (632 CE). Saʿd ibn Abī Waḳḳāṣ, the maternal uncle and second cousin of Muhammad, was sent with a delegation to meet the Chinese Gaozong Emperor. The construction of Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou, the first mosque in the country, is attributed to him. [6]

According to traditional Chinese Muslim legendary accounts, the history of Islam in China began when four companions of Muhammad (Ṣaḥābā)—Saʿd ibn Abī Waḳḳāṣ (594–674 CE), Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib, Jaḥsh ibn Riyāb, and another one sailed from the shores of the Aksumite Empire in 615–616 CE, reached ancient China by sea and preached there from 616 to 617 onwards, after their arrival following the Chittagong-Kamrup-Manipur route. Saʿd ibn Abī Waḳḳāṣ again headed for China for the third time in 650–651 CE, after ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (644–656), the third rāshidūn caliph, sent him with an embassy in 651 CE, which the Chinese Emperor received warmly. [7]

China-Arab trade relations

Trade existed between pre-Islamic Arabia and South China, and flourished when Arab maritime traders converted to Islam. It reached its peak under the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Muslims in China have managed to practice their faith in China, sometimes against great odds, since the 7th century CE. Islam is one of the religions that is still officially recognized in China. [8]

China's long and interactive relationship with the various tribes and empires of the Eurasian Steppe through diplomacy, trade, war, subordination, and/or domination paved the way for a large sustained Muslim community within China. Islamic influence came from the various steppe peoples who assimilated into the predominant Han-Chinese culture. Muslims who were transferred to China from Persia and Central Asia to administer the empire served as administrators, generals, and in other leadership positions.[ citation needed ]

History

Emperor Gaozong, the Tang emperor who received the envoy ordered the construction of the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou, the first mosque built in the country, in memory of Muhammad. [8] [6] Hui legends seem to confuse the 651 visit of Waḳḳāṣ with the introduction of Islam as early as 616–617 by earlier visits of the four companions of Muhammad (Ṣaḥābā).

While modern historians state that there is no evidence for Waḳḳāṣ himself ever coming to China, [6] they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants arrived to Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of the Muslim era. [6] The Tang dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts spread across Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally Non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam. [6] The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants. [9]

Tang dynasty

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, one of the oldest mosques in China Chinese-style minaret of the Great Mosque.jpg
The Great Mosque of Xi'an, one of the oldest mosques in China

Arab people are first noted in Chinese written records, under the name Ta shi in the annals of the Tang dynasty (618–907) (Ta shi or Da shi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the Persian people used for the Arabs). Records dating from 713 speak of the arrival of a Da shi ambassador. The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants. [10]

The first encounter between the Tang Chinese and the Umayyad Arabs occurred in 715 AD when Ikhshid, the king of Fergana Valley, was deposed with the help of the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate and a new king Alutar was installed on the throne. The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate), and sought Chinese intervention. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne. [11] In 717 AD the Arabs attacked Transoxiana again hoping to capture the Tang dynasty's Four Garrisons of Anxi district. [11] The Arabs were again routed in the Battle of Aksu. Subsequently, with Chinese backing, the Turgesh launched punitive attacks into Arab territory eventually wresting all of Ferghana from the Arabs with the exception of a few forts. [11]

Despite conflict between the Tang and the Abbasids during the Battle of Talas in 751, relations between the two states improved soon after. In 756, a contingent probably consisting of Persians and Iraqis was sent to Gansu to help Emperor Xuanzong in his struggle against the An Lushan Rebellion. Less than 50 years later, an alliance was concluded between the Tang and the Abbasids against Tibetan attacks in Central Asia. A mission from the Caliph Harun al-Rashid (766–809) arrived at Chang'an. [12]

It is recorded that in 758, a large Muslim settlement in Guangzhou erupted in unrest and the people fled. The community had constructed a large mosque (Huaisheng Mosque), destroyed by fire in 1314, and constructed in 1349–51; only ruins of a tower remain from the first building.

During the Tang dynasty, a steady stream of Arab (Ta'shi) and Persian (Po'si) traders arrived in China through the silk road and the overseas route through the port of Quanzhou. Not all of the immigrants were Muslims, but many of those who stayed formed the basis of the Chinese Muslim population and the Hui ethnic group. The Persian immigrants introduced polo, their cuisine, their musical instruments, and their knowledge of medicine to China.

Song dynasty

Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to have a great economic impact and influence on the country. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), Muslims in China dominated foreign trade and the import/export industry to the south and west. [13]

In year 1070, the Song emperor, Shen-tsung (Shenzong) invited 5,300 Muslims from Bukhara, to settle in China. The emperor used these men in his campaign against the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these Muslims were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern-day Beijing). The object was to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao. In 1080, 10,000 Arab men and women migrated to China on horseback and settled in all of the provinces of the north and north-east. [14] The Arabs from Bukhara were under the leadership of Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name). The prince was later given an honorary title. He is reputed of being the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ("law of the Arabs") (Tashi or Dashi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the Persian people used for the Arabs). . [15] He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ("the Religion of the Huihui"). [16]

The Chinese materia medica 52 (re-published in 1968–75) was revised under the Song dynasty in 1056 and 1107 to include material, particularly 200 medicines, taken from Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine . [17]

Pu Shougeng, a Muslim foreign trader, stands out in his work to help the Yuan conquer Southern China, the last outpost of Song power. In 1276, Song loyalists launched a resistance to Mongol efforts to take over Fuzhou. The Yuanshih (Yuan dynasty official history) records that Pu Shougeng "abandoned the Song cause and rejected the emperor...by the end of the year, Quanzhou submitted to the Mongols."In abandoning the Song cause, Pu Shougeng mobilized troops from the community of foreign residents, who massacred the Song emperor's relatives and Song loyalists.Pu Shougeng and his troops acted without the help of the Mongol army. Pu Shougeng himself was lavishly rewarded by the Mongols. He was appointed military commissioner for Fujian and Guangdong

Yuan dynasty

The Yuan dynasty of China continued to maintain an excellent relationship with other nomadic tribes on the Mongolian Plateau. The ethnic Mongol emperors of the Yuan dynasty elevated the status of foreigners of all religions versus the Han, Khitan, and Jurchen, and placed many foreigners such as Muslim Persians and Arabs, Turkic Christians, Jews, Tibetan Buddhist Lamas, and Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in high-ranking posts instead of native Confucian scholars, using many Muslims in the administration of China. The territory of the Yuan was administered in 12 districts during the reign of Kublai Khan with a governor and vice-governor each. According to Iranian historian Rashidu'd-Din Fadlu'llah, of these 12 governors, 8 were Muslims; in the remaining districts, Muslims were vice-governors. [18]

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent ethnic Han and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. [19]

The state forced massive numbers[ clarification needed ] of Central Asian Muslims to move into China during the Yuan dynasty. In the 14th century, the total population of Muslims was 4,000,000. [20] It was during this time that Jamal ad-Din, a Persian astronomer, presented Kublai Khan with seven Persian astronomical instruments. [21] Also, The Muslim architect Yeheidie'erding (Amir al-Din) learned from Han architecture and helped to design and construct the capital of the Yuan dynasty, Dadu, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh. [22]

In the mid-14th century, the Ispah Rebellion against the Yuan dynasty led by Chinese Persian Muslims broke out in South Fujian. After the rebellion was suppressed, the local Han people in Quanzhou turned against the Semu people and great misery was brought upon Muslim population. Quanzhou itself ceased to be a leading international seaport.

Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals (similar to Jhatka, and believed by Buddhists to induce less suffering) on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. [23] Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher. [24] [25] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined the Han people in rebelling against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant "barracks" and also mean "thanks", many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Yuan dynasty and it was named in honor of the Han people who assisted them. [26]

Dadu would last until 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty and future Hongwu Emperor, made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital. [27] The last Yuan emperor fled north to Shangdu and Zhu ordered the destruction of Yuan palaces. [27] Dadu was renamed Beiping by the Ming in the same year.

Ming dynasty

Chang Yuchun was a Muslim Ming dynasty general who greatly contributed to overthrowing Mongol rule. Chang Yu Chun .jpg
Chang Yuchun was a Muslim Ming dynasty general who greatly contributed to overthrowing Mongol rule.

Muslims continued to flourish in China during the Ming dynasty. During Ming rule, the capital, Nanjing, was a center of Islamic learning. [29] The Ming dynasty saw the rapid decline in the Muslim population in the sea ports. This was due to the closing of all seaport trade with the outside world. However it also saw the appointment of Muslim military generals such as Mu Ying who campaigned in Yunnan and central Shandong. These two areas became leading centers of Islamic learning in China. The emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was the founder of the Ming dynasty. Many of his most trusted commanders were Muslims, including Hu Dahai, Mu Ying, Lan Yu, Feng Sheng and Ding Dexing. The Ming dynasty also gave rise to the famous Muslim explorer Zheng He. [30]

Muslims in Ming dynasty Beijing were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, and being normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing. [31]

Integration

Immigration slowed down drastically, however, and the Muslims in China became increasingly isolated from the rest of the Islamic world, gradually becoming more sinicized, adopting the Chinese language and Chinese dress. During this period, Muslims also began to adopt Chinese surnames. Other Muslims, who could not find a Chinese surname similar to their own, adopted the Chinese character most similar to their own – Ma (馬) for Muhammad, Mai for Mustafa, Mu for Masoud, Ha for Hasan, Hu for Hussain and Sa'I for Said and so on. The Hui, Salar, and Dongxiang are Muslims in China who use Chinese surnames. As a result, the Muslims became "outwardly indistinguishable" from the Chinese. [32]

In addition to names, Muslim customs of dress and food also underwent a synthesis with Chinese culture.The Islamic modes of dress and dietary rules were maintained within a Chinese cultural framework. In time, the immigrant Muslims began to speak local dialects and to read in Chinese.

Qing dynasty

Pagoda composed of the Shahada and other Islamic prayers; section of an 1845 scroll Khalili Collection Hajj and Arts of Pilgrimage mss 1270 pagoda.jpg
Pagoda composed of the Shahada and other Islamic prayers; section of an 1845 scroll

In the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in Beijing, Xi'an, Hangzhou, Guangzhou, and other places (in addition to those in the western Muslim regions). The architecture typically employed traditional Chinese styles, with Arabic-language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature. Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army. As travel became easier, there were many exchanges between China and the outside world. Around this time, Chinese Muslims also became the first Muslims in New Zealand (See Islam in New Zealand). Sufism spread throughout the Northwestern China in the early decades of the Qing dynasty (mid-17th century through early 18th century). [33] The most important Sufi orders (menhuan) included:

Gunners of the Dungan revolt Yarkand Governor's Guard.jpg
Gunners of the Dungan revolt

The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. The Kangxi Emperor claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai (Kokonor) were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami. [34]

The Uyghur Muslim Sayyid and Naqshbandi Sufi rebel of the Afaqi suborder, Jahangir Khoja was sliced to death (Lingchi) in 1828 by the Manchus for leading a rebellion against the Qing.

Ming loyalist Muslims

When forces of the Qing dynasty entered China proper in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin [35] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. [36] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay. [37] [38] [39] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt. [40] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military. [41] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing. [42] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing. [43]

Dungan and Panthay Revolts

During the time, the Muslims revolted against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the Dungan revolt (1862–1877) and the Panthay rebellion (1856–1873) in Yunnan. One million people died in the Panthay rebellion, [12] [44] several million people died in the Dungan revolt. [12]

However, Muslims in other parts of China proper like in the east and southern provinces who did not revolt, were not affected at all by the rebellion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unaffected and relations between Han and Hui continued normally.

The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt. [45]

Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote, "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain." [46]

Many Muslims like Ma Zhan'ao, Ma Anliang, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Qianling, and Ma Julung defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the Khafiya sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.

In 1895, another Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out, and loyalist Muslims like Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by Ma Dahan, Ma Yonglin, and Ma Wanfu.

A Muslim army called the Gansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known Generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.

In Yunnan was noted that the Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising. [47]

Islam in China (1912–present)

Chinese Muslim guerrilla fighters gather to oppose the Japanese invaders in Northwestern China, c. 1939 Anti-Japanese Muslim guerillas in Northwest China, c. 1939.jpg
Chinese Muslim guerrilla fighters gather to oppose the Japanese invaders in Northwestern China, c. 1939

The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, in the aftermath of the Chinese Communist Revolution (1946−1950). Through many of the early years, there were tremendous upheavals which culminated in the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). During the Cultural Revolution, Islam, along with all other religions in the country, including the traditional Chinese religion, were persecuted by the atheist Red Guards, who had attempted to eradicate them through a series of atheistic and anti-religious campaigns, encouraged by the Chinese Communist Party, to smash the Four Olds. Traditional Chinese, Confucian, and Buddhist temples and monasteries, Christian churches, and Muslim mosques were all attacked. [50]

In 1975, in what would be known as the Shadian incident, there was an uprising among Hui in what was the only large scale ethnic rebellion during the Cultural Revolution. [51] In crushing the rebellion, the PLA massacred 1,600 Hui [51] with MIG fighter jets used to fire rockets onto the village. Following the fall of the Gang of Four, apologies and reparations were made. [52]

After the advent of Deng Xiaoping in 1979, Muslims enjoyed a period of liberalisation. New legislation gave all minorities the freedom to use their own spoken and written languages, to develop their own culture and education and to practice their religion. [53] More Chinese Muslims than ever before were allowed to go on the Hajj. [54]

Since the Chinese Communist Revolution (1946–1950) that occurred during the 20th century and throughout the first half of the 21st century, the Chinese Communist government and authorities of the People's Republic of China have reportedly detained more than a million Chinese Muslims in internment camps. [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] Most of the people who have been targeted and arbitrarily detained in these internment camps are the Uyghurs, a predominantly Turkic-speaking Chinese-Muslim ethnic group which inhabits primarily the Northwestern region of Xinjiang, [59] alongside Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic Muslim ethnic minorities. [55] [56] [57] [58] Core strategies of the Chinese government's campaign against the Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim ethnic minorities include identity-based persecution, systematized mass detention and surveillance, forced abortions and sterilizations, forced birth control, forced labor, forced assimilation, torture, brainwashing, and gang rape. [55] [56] [57] [58]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Steinhardt, Nancy (2015). "Islamic architecture in China". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett K. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE . Vol. 4. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26219. ISBN   9789004282131. ISSN   1873-9830. Islamic architecture in China most likely dates from the eighth century and flourished from the time of the Song dynasty (r. 960–1279). It is characterised by its adaptability to the Chinese building system. The oldest Muslim buildings in China today (cenotaphs, mausoleums, and prayer halls, an entry gate, and a minaret) survive in locations across the country and date to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Shrines of holy men (Ar. qubba) date primarily from the Qing dynasty (r. 1644–1911) and are located in western China.
  2. ↑ B. L. K. Pillsbury (1981), "Muslim History in China: A 1300-year Chronology", Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 3 (2): 10–29, doi:10.1080/02666958108715833 .
  3. ↑ For China Family Panel Studies 2017 survey results see release #1 (archived) and release #2(). The tables also contain the results of CFPS 2012 (sample 20,035) and Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) results for 2006, 2008 and 2010 (samples ≈10.000/11,000). Also see, for comparison CFPS 2012 data in Lu 卢, Yunfeng 云峰 (2014). "卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据" [Report on Religions in Contemporary China – Based on CFPS (2012) Survey Data](PDF). World Religious Cultures (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2019. p. 13, reporting the results of the CGSS 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011, and their average (fifth column of the first table).
  4. ↑ "China halts mosque demolition due to protest". The Times of India . Archived from the original on 2018-08-11. Retrieved 2018-08-10.
  5. 1 2 Armijo 2006
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lipman 1997 , p. 25
  7. ↑ Khamouch, Mohammed. "Jewel of Chinese Muslim's Heritage" (PDF). FTSC. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  8. 1 2 BBC 2002 , Origins
  9. ↑ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. United States of America: Lexington Books, page 291, ISBN   0-7391-0375-X.
  10. ↑ Israeli (2002), pg. 291
  11. 1 2 3
  12. 1 2 3 Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN   0-521-49712-4
  13. ↑ "BBC – Religion & Ethics – Islam in China (650-present): Origins". www.bbc.co.uk.
  14. ↑ Israeli (2002), pg. 283-4
  15. ↑ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN   0-7391-0375-X.
  16. ↑ Israeli (2002), pg. 284
  17. ↑ "Halqah Media Productions". Dubai Buzz. Archived from the original on 16 December 2006. Retrieved 12 November 2006.
  18. ↑ Islam the Straight Path: Islam ... – Google Book Search at books.google.co.uk
  19. ↑ BUELL, PAUL D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara". Journal of Asian History. 13 (2): 137–8. JSTOR   41930343.
  20. ↑ Israeli (2002), p. 285
  21. ↑ Zhu (1946)
  22. ↑ "People's Daily Online The Hui ethnic minority". en.people.cn. Archived from the original on 2013-04-05. Retrieved 2021-08-19.
  23. ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 24. ISBN   978-0-7007-1026-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  24. ↑ Donald Daniel Leslie (1998). "The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" (PDF). The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  25. ↑ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 228. ISBN   978-0-8122-4237-9 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  26. ↑ Dru C. Gladney (1991). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. p. 234. ISBN   978-0-674-59495-1 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  27. 1 2 Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN   0-521-66991-X
  28. ↑ Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia By Tan Ta Sen, Dasheng Chen, pg 170
  29. ↑ "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam". Archived from the original on March 12, 2008.
  30. ↑ Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 170. ISBN   978-981-230-837-5.
  31. ↑ Susan Naquin (2000). Peking: temples and city life, 1400–1900. University of California Press. p. 214. ISBN   978-0-520-21991-5 . Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  32. ↑ Israeli(2002), pg. 292
  33. ↑ Gladney (1999)
  34. ↑ Perdue, Peter C (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 191, 192. ISBN   978-0674042025.
  35. ↑ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 298. ISBN   978-0804729338 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  36. ↑ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 53. ISBN   978-0295800554 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  37. ↑ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 54. ISBN   978-0295800554 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  38. ↑ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 171. ISBN   978-0804729338 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  39. ↑ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 8. ISBN   978-3447040914 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  40. ↑ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 55. ISBN   978-0295800554 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  41. ↑ WAKEMAN JR., FREDERIC (1986). GREAT ENTERPRISE. University of California Press. p.  802. ISBN   978-0520048041 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  42. ↑ WAKEMAN JR., FREDERIC (1986). GREAT ENTERPRISE. University of California Press. p.  803. ISBN   978-0520048041 . Retrieved 24 April 2014. milayin.
  43. ↑ Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar; Pierce, Justin, eds. (2013). Charities in the Non-Western World: The Development and Regulation of Indigenous and Islamic Charities. Routledge. ISBN   978-1317938521 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  44. ↑ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN   1-74059-687-0
  45. ↑ Hugh D. R. Baker (1990). Hong Kong images: people and animals. Hong Kong University Press. p. 55. ISBN   978-962-209-255-6.
  46. ↑ Allès, Elizabeth (September–October 2003). "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan". China Perspectives. 2003 (49): 6. doi: 10.4000/chinaperspectives.649 . Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  47. ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 77. ISBN   978-0-7007-1026-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  48. ↑ Lin, Hsiao-ting (13 September 2010). "4 War and new frontier designs". Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN   978-1-136-92393-7.
  49. ↑ Lin, Hsiao-ting (13 September 2010). "4 War and new frontier designs". Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN   978-1-136-92392-0.
  50. ↑ Goldman, Merle (1986). Religion in Post-Mao China, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 483.1:145-56
  51. 1 2 Antidrug crusades in twentieth century China. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. 1999. pp. 137, 162. ISBN   978-0-8476-9598-0.
  52. ↑ Muslim Chinese. Cambridge: Harvard East Asian Monographs. 1996. p. 140. ISBN   978-0-674-59497-5.
  53. ↑ "bbc religion and ethics ISLAM Integration". Archived from the original on 2007-09-18. Retrieved 2007-05-28.
  54. ↑ New Encyclopedia of Islam, pg. 622-25
  55. 1 2 3 "Chinese Persecution of the Uyghurs". Washington, D.C.: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2022. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.
  56. 1 2 3 "China: Draconian repression of Muslims in Xinjiang amounts to crimes against humanity". London: Amnesty International. 10 June 2021. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.
  57. 1 2 3 Maizland, Lindsay (1 March 2021). "China's Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang". New York City: Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.
  58. 1 2 3 Fathil, Fauziah (2019). "Muslim Minority in China: A Case of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang". In Sidek, Noor Z. M.; Said, Roshima; Hasan, Wan N. W. (eds.). Islamic Development Management. Singapore: Springer Verlag. pp. 355–370. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7584-2_27. ISBN   978-981-13-7584-2. S2CID   158312566.
  59. 1 2 Baginda, Abdul R. (2021). "Conclusion: Balancing Between Domestic and International Imperatives". The Global Rise of China and Asia. Cham, Switzerland and New York, U.S.: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 181–182. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91806-4_6. ISBN   978-3-030-91806-4.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hui people</span> Ethnoreligious group of China

The Hui people are an East Asian ethnoreligious group predominantly composed of Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam. They are distributed throughout China, mainly in the northwestern provinces and in the Zhongyuan region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Panthays in Myanmar and many of the Chin Haws in Thailand are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qianlong Emperor</span> Emperor of China from 1735 to 1796

The Qianlong Emperor, also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. He reigned officially from 1735 until his abdication in 1796, but retained ultimate power subsequently until his death in 1799, making him one of the longest-reigning monarchs in history as well as one of the longest-lived.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salar people</span> Turkic ethnic group in western China

The Salar people are a Turkic ethnic minority in China who speak Salar, a Turkic language of the Oghuz sub-branch. They numbered 165,159 people in 2020, according to that year's national census.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China</span>

Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE. There are an estimated 17–25 million Muslims in China, less than 2 percent of the total population. Though Hui Muslims are the most numerous group, the greatest concentration of Muslims reside in northwestern China's Xinjiang autonomous region, which contains a significant Uyghur population. Lesser yet significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten of these groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Mosque of Xi'an</span> Mosque in Xian, Shaanxi, China

The Great Mosque of Xi'an is one of the largest premodern mosques in China. Although the mosque was first built in the year 742 AD during the Tang dynasty, its current form was largely constructed in 1384 AD during Emperor Hongwu's reign of the Ming dynasty, as recorded by the Records of Xi'an Municipality (西安府志).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Xinjiang</span> Aspect of Chinese history

Xinjiang consists of two main regions, geographically separated by the Tianshan Mountains, which are historically and ethnically distinct: Dzungaria to the north, and the Tarim Basin to the south. In the 18th and 19th centuries, these areas were conquered by the Qing dynasty, which in 1884 integrated them into one province named Xinjiang.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam during the Yuan dynasty</span> Islam and Muslims in Yuan dynasty China

During the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, there was a significant increase in the population of Muslims in China. Under the Mongol Empire, east–west communication and cross-cultural transmission were largely promoted. As a result, foreigners in China were given an elevated status in the hierarchy of the new regime. The impact on China by its Muslims at this time, including the advancement of Chinese science and the designing of Dadu, is vast and largely unknown. It is estimated that the population of the Hui minority grew from 50,000 in the 9th century to 4,000,000 in the 14th century, becoming the largest non-Han ethnic group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam during the Ming dynasty</span> Overview of the role of Islam and Muslims in Ming dynasty China

As the Yuan dynasty ended, many Mongols as well as the Muslims who came with them remained in China. Most of their descendants took Chinese names and became part of the diverse cultural world of China. During the following Ming rule (1368–1644), Muslims truly adopted Chinese culture. Most became fluent in Chinese and adopted Chinese names and the capital, Nanjing, became a center of Islamic learning. As a result, the Muslims became "outwardly indistinguishable" from the Chinese.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam during the Qing dynasty</span> Overview of the role of Islam and Muslims in Qing dynasty China

During the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), Islam was a significant religion in Northwestern China and Yunnan. There were five major Muslim rebellions during the Qing period. The first and last rebellions were caused by sectarian infighting between rival Sufi Muslim orders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semu</span> Yuan dynasty caste

Semu is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group per se, but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols, Semu, the "Han" and the Southerners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China (1912–present)</span>

After the fall of the Qing dynasty following the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912), Sun Yat-sen, who led the new Republic of China (1912–1949), immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Chinese Muslims suffered political repression along with all other religious groups in China, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yuan dynasty</span> Mongol-led dynasty of China (1271–1368)

The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the Borjigin clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In Chinese history, the Yuan dynasty followed the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Qing sentiment</span> Han Chinese sentiment principally held in China against Manchu rule during the Qing dynasty

Anti-Qing sentiment refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the rule of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), which was criticized by opponents as being "barbaric". The Qing was accused of destroying traditional Han culture by enforcing policies such as forcing Han to wear their hair in a queue in the Manchu style. It was blamed for suppressing Chinese science, causing China to be transformed from the world's premiere power to a poor, backwards nation. The people of the Eight Banners lived off government pensions unlike the general Han civilian population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ming conquest of Yunnan</span> Ancient Chinese military campaign

The Ming conquest of Yunnan was the final phase in the Ming dynasty expulsion of Mongol-led Yuan dynasty rule from China proper in the 1380s.

The vast majority of China's Muslims are Sunni Muslims, although a small minority are Shia.

The history of the Uyghur people extends over more than two millennia and can be divided into four distinct phases: Pre-Imperial, Imperial, Idiqut, and Mongol, with perhaps a fifth modern phase running from the death of the Silk Road in AD 1600 until the present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dzungar genocide</span> Genocide of the Mongol Dzungar people

The Dzungar genocide was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor ordered the genocide after the rebellion in 1755 by Dzungar leader Amursana against Qing rule, after the dynasty first conquered the Dzungar Khanate with Amursana's support. The genocide was perpetrated by Manchu generals of the Qing army, supported by Turkic oasis dwellers who rebelled against Dzungar rule.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang under Qing rule</span> Aspect of Chinese history

The Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China ruled over Xinjiang from the late 1750s to 1912. In the history of Xinjiang, the Qing rule was established in the final phase of the Dzungar–Qing Wars when the Dzungar Khanate was conquered by the Qing dynasty, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The post of General of Ili was established to govern the whole of Xinjiang and reported to the Lifan Yuan, a Qing government agency that oversaw the empire's frontier regions. Xinjiang was turned into a province in 1884.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phoenix Mosque</span> Mosque in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Phoenix Mosque is a mosque in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. It is known for being one of the four great mosques of China. It is also one of the earliest mosque built in China. The origin of this mosque dates back to the Tang or Song dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese Islamic architecture</span> Architectural tradition and cultural heritage of Chinese Muslims

Chinese Islamic architecture, Sino-Islamic architecture, or Islamic architecture of China are terms used to indicate the architectural tradition and cultural heritage of the Muslim populations in China, both of mainland and outer China, which has existed since the 8th century CE to the present. With the acculturation of the Islamic religion within the predominant Han-Chinese culture, a unique architectural style emerged among Chinese Muslims. It became standard for them to incorporate traditional Chinese and Islamic architectural elements together for mosques, prayer halls, mausoleums, and other buildings.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.