Islamophobia in China

Last updated

A Han Chinese man holding a self-defense weapon during the July 2009 Urumqi riots Urumuqi Han 2.jpg
A Han Chinese man holding a self-defense weapon during the July 2009 Ürümqi riots

Islamophobia in China refers to the set of discourses, behaviors and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam and/or Muslims in China. [1] [2]

Contents

Negative views and attitudes towards Muslims in China are widespread, and some Muslim communities in China face legal restrictions on their ability to practice. [3] Muslim prisoners in detention centers and internment camps have faced practices such as being force-fed pork. [4] Prohibitions on fasting during Ramadan are couched in terms of protecting residents' free will. [5]

In the 21st century, coverage of Muslims in Chinese media has generally been negative, [6] and Islamophobic content is widespread on Chinese social media. [7] Anti-Muslim attitudes in China have been tied to both narratives regarding historical conflicts between China and Muslim polities as well as contemporary rhetoric related to terrorism in China and abroad. [8] [9]

History

Recent scholars contend that historical conflicts between the Han Chinese and Muslims like the Northwest Hui Rebellion have been used by some Han Chinese to legitimize and fuel anti-Muslim beliefs and bias in contemporary China. [8] [10] Scholars and researchers have also argued that Western Islamophobia and the "War on Terror" have contributed to the mainstreaming of anti-Muslim sentiments and practices in China. [11] [12] [13]

Middle Easterners in China interviewed by the Middle East Institute in 2018 generally did not report discrimination. However, a Yemeni student said that he received unfavorable reactions from some Chinese when he stated he was a Muslim. [14]

It has been reported that Muslims were being forced to eat pork in detention centers and in the Xinjiang internment camps. [4] Since Xi Jinping became General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, campaigns against Islam have extended to the Hui people and Utsul community in Hainan. [15] [16] [17] [3] In 2023, NPR reported on ways that the Chinese government is actively preventing Chinese Muslim from going on the Hajj such as confiscation of passports. [18] In Uyghur communities, Islamic education for children has been prohibited and teaching the Quran to children has resulted in criminal prosecution. [19] [20] [21] In 2023, government efforts to "sinicize" a mosque in Yunnan by destroying its minaret and dome roof led to clashes with worshippers. [22]

News coverage

Mosque with dome removed due to Sinicization policy Front gate of Ximen Mosque, Dali.jpg
Mosque with dome removed due to Sinicization policy

Traditional media in China were used to be very cautious on the coverage of ethnic issues—particularly Muslim issues, to foster a positive environment both for solidarity among China's different ethnic groups and religions and China's diplomatic relations with Muslim countries. Starting in 2015, hostility towards Muslims and Islam surged after series of terrorist attacks and the emergence of the European refugee crisis. [23] Some observers contend that although negative stereotypes about Muslims have long existed in China, a global rise of Islamophobia, the influence of fake news, and the actions of the Chinese government towards their Muslim minorities have exacerbated Islamophobia in the country. [24]

US-based researchers Rose Luqiu and Fan Yang contend in The Washington Post that anti-Muslim sentiment has been spurred by Chinese news reports, which tend to portray Muslims as prone to terrorism, or as recipients of disproportionate aid from the government. [25] A 2018 study by the two researchers found that Chinese news coverage of Muslims and Islam was generally negative. The study found that non-Muslim Chinese hold negative views towards Islam and Muslims, and that some Chinese Muslims report discrimination and awareness of negative portrayals of themselves in the media. [6]

Online

The same two researchers analyzed over 10,000 posts on Weibo in 2019 relating to Islam and found that anti-Muslim sentiment was a common frame. Chinese Muslims users on the site reported that they faced challenges in attempting to have others understand their faith, due to the prevailing Han-centric discourse and government censorship. [26]

In 2017, Gerry Shih of the Associated Press described Islamophobic rhetoric in online social media posts as due to perceived injustices regarding the Muslim minority advantages in college admissions and exemptions from family-size limits. [7] [27] In 2018, a South China Morning Post article similarly described online Islamophobia in China as "becoming increasingly widespread" particularly due to news of institutional preferential treatment for Muslim minorities and news of terrorist attacks in Xinjiang. [28] A 2018 UCSD study of 77,642 posts from Tencent QQ suggested that online Islamophobia was especially concentrated in provinces with higher Muslim populations. [29] An online movement against the spread of halal products in the country has also been reported. [30] [31]

According to Tony Lin of the Columbia Journalism Review , many users utilize popular sites like Weibo and WeChat to spread anti-Muslim fake news taken from western far-right media. [32] He wrote that after the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, the most liked comments under Chinese social media posts and various mainstream media sites covering the incident were explicitly anti-Muslim or in support of the shooter. However, he also wrote that the comments were not representative of the Chinese population. [32] Other articles have reported on the more varied netizen responses to the mosque shootings. [33] [34] [35]

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uyghurs</span> Turkic ethnic group of Central and East Asia

The Uyghurs, alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central Asia and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities.

Islamophobia is the irrational fear of, hostility towards, or hatred against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general. Islamophobia is primarily a form of religious or cultural bigotry; and people who harbour such sentiments often stereotype Muslims as a geopolitical threat or a source of terrorism. Muslims, with diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, are often inaccurately portrayed by Islamophobes as a single homogenous racial group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkistan Islamic Party</span> Islamic extremist terrorist organization in China

The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) is a Uyghur Islamic militant organization founded in Pakistan by Hasan Mahsum. Its stated goals are to establish an Islamic state in Xinjiang and Central Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Id Kah Mosque</span> Mosque in Kashgar, Xinjiang, China

The Id Kah Mosque is a historic mosque and tourist site located in Kashgar, Xinjiang, China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China</span>

Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE. There are an estimated 17–25 million Muslims in China, less than 2 percent of the total population. Though Hui Muslims are the most numerous group, the greatest concentration of Muslims reside in northwestern China's Xinjiang autonomous region, which contains a significant Uyghur population. Lesser yet significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten of these groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.

Freedom of religion in China may be referring to the following entities separated by the Taiwan Strait:

The post-9/11 period is the time after the September 11 attacks, characterized by heightened suspicion of non-Americans in the United States, increased government efforts to address terrorism, and a more aggressive American foreign policy.

Racism in China arises from Chinese history, nationalism, sinicization, and other factors. Racism in the People's Republic of China has been documented in numerous situations. Ethnic tensions have led to numerous incidents in the country such as the Xinjiang conflict, the ongoing internment and state persecution of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, the 2010 Tibetan language protest, the 2020 Inner Mongolia protests, discrimination against Africans in particular and discrimination against Black people in general.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in China (1912–present)</span>

After the fall of the Qing dynasty following the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912), Sun Yat-sen, who led the new Republic of China (1912–1949), immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Chinese Muslims suffered political repression along with all other religious groups in China, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang conflict</span> Geopolitical conflict in Central Asia

The Xinjiang conflict, also known as the East Turkistan conflict, Uyghur–Chinese conflict or Sino-East Turkistan conflict, is an ethnic geopolitical conflict in what is now China's far-northwest autonomous region of Xinjiang, also known as East Turkistan. It is centred around the Uyghurs, a Turkic ethnic group who constitute a plurality of the region's population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">April 2014 Ürümqi attack</span> Terrorist attack by Uighur separatists in Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China

On 30 April 2014, a bomb-and-knife attack occurred in the Chinese city of Ürümqi, Xinjiang. The terrorist attack killed 3 people, and injured 79 others. The attack coincided with the conclusion of a visit by Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party to the region.

On the early morning of Wednesday, 30 July 2014, Juma Tahir, the imam of China's largest mosque, the Id Kah Mosque in northwestern Kashgar, was stabbed to death by three young male Uyghur extremists. Religious leaders across denominations condemned the attack.

Islamophobia in the United Kingdom refers to a set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of hatred, anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam or Muslims in the United Kingdom. Islamophobia can manifest itself in a wide range of ways; including, discrimination in the workforce, negative coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antireligious campaigns in China</span>

Antireligious campaigns in China are a series of policies and practices taken as part of the Chinese Communist Party's official promotion of state atheism, coupled with its persecution of people with spiritual or religious beliefs, in the People's Republic of China. Antireligious campaigns were launched in 1949, after the Chinese Communist Revolution, and they continue to be waged against Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, and members of other religious communities in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang internment camps</span> Chinese prison camps in the Xinjiang region

The Xinjiang internment camps, officially called vocational education and training centers by the government of China, are internment camps operated by the government of Xinjiang and the Chinese Communist Party Provincial Standing Committee. Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a "people's war on terror", a policy announced in 2014. Thirty-seven countries have expressed support for China's government for "counter-terrorism and deradicalization measures", including countries such as Russia, Saudi Arabia, Cuba, and Venezuela; meanwhile 22 or 43 countries, depending on source, have called on China to respect the human rights of the Uyghur community, including countries such as Canada, Germany, Turkey and Japan. Xinjiang internment camps have been described as "the most extreme example of China's inhumane policies against Uighurs". The camps have been criticized by the subcommittee of the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development for persecution of Uyghurs in China, including mistreatment, rape, torture, and genocide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamophobia in Italy</span> Prejudice towards Islam or Muslims in Italy

Islamophobia is characterized by a hatred against the religion of Islam and those perceived to be following the religion, typically fueled by fear and hatred and sustained through the evolving stereotype of the Muslim identity. It has become increasingly common and widespread throughout the world, in particular since the September 11 attacks in the United States, however it existed in society before this. In Europe, there has been an increase in cultural tensions between national majorities and marginalized Muslim countries, as shown by the results of the 2009 elections in the European Parliament with a large vote toward anti-immigration. Within Italy, there is a large Islamic presence of approximately 1.25 million people, stemming from the widespread migration and settlement that began in the 1970s, in particular from North Africa. The Islamic population of Italy increasingly faces challenges when it comes to their position in society, with the increasing cultural hostility that stems from the growing presence of Islamophobia. Islamophobia has been present within Italy for many years; for example, in the 1920s, Muslims were not permitted to settle in the country due to their religion being viewed as "against common morality." The intensity of Islamophobia in Italy is enhanced by the historical religious structure of the state – which is heavily based on the Catholic Church.

Islamophobia in Poland is the fear, hatred of, or prejudice against the Islamic religion or Muslims in Poland. Since the Muslim community in Poland is small the situation has been described as "Islamophobia without Muslims". According to Monika Bobako, Islamophobia is one of the main elements of the Polish nationalist discourse. Islamophobia in Poland takes the form of xenophobia and discrimination towards Muslims or those perceived as Muslim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xinjiang papers</span> Collection of leaked internal Chinese government documents

The Xinjiang papers are a collection of more than 400 pages of internal Chinese government documents describing the government policy regarding Uyghur Muslims in the Xinjiang region. In November 2019, journalists Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckley at The New York Times broke the story that characterized the documents as "one of the most significant leaks of government papers from inside China's ruling Communist Party in decades." According to The New York Times, the documents were leaked by a source inside the Chinese Communist Party and include a breakdown of how China created and organized the Xinjiang internment camps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</span> Series of human rights abuses against an ethnic group in Western China

Since 2014, the Chinese government has committed a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim minorities in Xinjiang which has often been characterized as persecution or as genocide. There have been reports of mass arbitrary arrests and detention, torture, mass surveillance, cultural and religious persecution, family separation, forced labor, sexual violence, and violations of reproductive rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act</span> US law on Xinjiang human rights

The Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020 is a United States federal law that requires various United States government bodies to report on human rights abuses by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese government against Uyghurs in Xinjiang, China, including the Xinjiang internment camps.

References

  1. ↑ Richardson, Robin (2012), Islamophobia or anti-Muslim racism – or what? – concepts and terms revisited (PDF), p. 7, archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-10-25, retrieved 10 December 2016
  2. ↑ Hogan, Linda; Lehrke, Dylan (2009). Religion and politics of Peace and Conflict. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 205. ISBN   9781556350672. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
  3. 1 2 Baptista, Eduardo (2020-09-28). "Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2020-10-16. Retrieved 2020-10-16.
  4. 1 2 Regencia, Ted (4 December 2020). "Uighurs forced to eat pork as China expands Xinjiang pig farms". Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
  5. ↑ "What Ramadan is like in Xinjiang" . The Economist . 11 April 2024. ISSN   0013-0613 . Retrieved 2024-04-12.
  6. 1 2 Luqiu, Luwei Rose; Yang, Fan (2018-03-28). "Islamophobia in China: news coverage, stereotypes, and Chinese Muslims' perceptions of themselves and Islam". Asian Journal of Communication. 28 (6): 598–619. doi:10.1080/01292986.2018.1457063. ISSN   0129-2986. S2CID   149462511. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  7. 1 2 Gerry Shih (2017-04-10). "Islamophobia in China on the rise fuelled by online hate speech". The Independent. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2021-03-24. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  8. 1 2 Qian, Jingyuan (2019-06-06). "Historical Ethnic Conflicts and the Rise of Islamophobia in Modern China". University of Wisconsin-Madison. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3450176. SSRN   3450176. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-05-23.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee (2019-09-21). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2023-07-25.
  10. ↑ Theaker, Hannah (2019-08-02). "Wounds that fester: Histories of Chinese Islamophobia". University of Nottingham Asia Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2021-05-23. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  11. ↑ Hammond, Kelly Anne (24 May 2019). "The history of China's Muslims and what's behind their persecution". The Conversation . Archived from the original on 2021-05-17. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  12. ↑ Tazamal, Mobashra. "Chinese Islamophobia was made in the West". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 2021-05-23. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  13. ↑ Brophy, David (2019-07-09). "Good and Bad Muslims in Xinjiang". Made in China Journal. Archived from the original on 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  14. ↑ Yellinek, Roie (10 April 2018). "Middle Eastern Students and Young Professionals in China: A Mutual Investment in the Future". Middle East Institute . Archived from the original on 20 March 2022.
  15. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee (2019-09-22). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  16. ↑ Emily, Feng (September 26, 2019). "'Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown". NPR . Archived from the original on October 8, 2019. Retrieved September 20, 2020.
  17. ↑ Feng, Emily (November 21, 2020). "China Targets Muslim Scholars And Writers With Increasingly Harsh Restrictions". NPR . Archived from the original on November 21, 2020. Retrieved November 21, 2020.
  18. ↑ Feng, Emily (August 17, 2023). "China makes it harder for its Muslim citizens to go to Mecca, or anywhere else". NPR . Archived from the original on August 18, 2023. Retrieved August 19, 2023.
  19. ↑ "Xinjiang Authorities Are Retroactively Applying Laws to Prosecute Religious Leaders as Criminals". ChinaFile. Asia Society. 2024-03-08. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
  20. ↑ Hoshur, Shohret (June 18, 2024). "Uyghur woman re-sentenced for teaching youth the Quran". Radio Free Asia . Retrieved June 18, 2024.
  21. ↑ Hoshur, Shohret (March 1, 2023). "Uyghur woman serving 21 years in jail for sending children to religious school". Radio Free Asia . Retrieved June 18, 2024.
  22. ↑ Lang, Qian (December 16, 2024). "Yunnan Muslims protest outside government building as imam detained". Radio Free Asia . Retrieved December 16, 2024.
  23. ↑ Mu Chunshan (2016-09-13). "Anti-Muslim Sentiment Is Taking Over China's Social Media Scene". The Diplomat . Archived from the original on 2021-05-09. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  24. ↑ Johnson, Ian (2019-05-14). "Islamophobia in China". ChinaFile . Archived from the original on 2021-01-15. Retrieved 2021-01-13.
  25. ↑ Luqiu, Rose; Yang, Fan. "Analysis | Anti-Muslim sentiment is on the rise in China. We found that the Internet fuels — and fights — this". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2019-02-26. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
  26. ↑ Luqiu, Luwei Rose; Yang, Fan (2019-12-09). "Anti-muslim sentiment on social media in China and Chinese Muslims' reactions to hatred and misunderstanding". Chinese Journal of Communication. 13 (3): 258–274. doi:10.1080/17544750.2019.1699841. ISSN   1754-4750. S2CID   213492511. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
  27. ↑ Gerry Shih (2017-04-10). "Unfettered online hate speech fuels Islamophobia in China". AP NEWS. Archived from the original on 2019-10-19. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
  28. ↑ Laurie Chen (2018-10-25). "Chinese man jailed for Koran burning as Islamaphobia spreads online". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
  29. ↑ Bailey Marsheck; Mark Wang (2018-09-25). "Islamophobia on Chinese Social Media". China Data Lab. UCSD. Archived from the original on 2020-11-30. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  30. ↑ Koetse, Manya (July 21, 2017). "The Anti "Halalification" Crusade of Chinese Netizens". What's on Weibo. Archived from the original on 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  31. ↑ "China: The problem of growing anti-muslim sentiment". DW News . Jan 28, 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2020-12-03– via Youtube.
  32. 1 2 Tony Lin (March 21, 2019). "After New Zealand massacre, Islamophobia spreads on Chinese social media". Columbia Journalism Review. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2021-01-13.
  33. ↑ Koetse, Manya (March 2019). "Chinese Netizens' Response to New Zealand Mosque Attacks". What's on Weibo. Archived from the original on May 11, 2019. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  34. ↑ Alice Su (2019-03-16). "The Christchurch shooter's manifesto praised China's values. That's sparking debate in China". Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 2021-01-10. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
  35. ↑ "Is Chinese media using the New Zealand mosque shooting as a political opportunity?". ABC News . March 18, 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.