Since the 20th century, malicious allegations about Muslims have increasingly occurred a recurred as a motif in Islamophobic tropes, often taking the form of libels, stereotypes, or conspiracy theories. These tropes typically portray Muslims as violent, oppressive, or inherently extremist, with some also featuring the denial or trivialization of historical injustices against Muslim communities. These stereotypes have contributed to discrimination, hate crimes, and systemic marginalization of Muslims throughout history.[2]
During the colonial era, European powers advanced the stereotype of Muslims as inherently despotic and backward to legitimize imperial rule over Muslim-majority lands. These tropes often depicted Islam as incompatible with modernity and democracy, reinforcing policies of cultural suppression and economic exploitation.[3]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, Islamophobic narratives evolved into modern conspiracy theories, particularly the notion that Muslims are attempting to "Islamize" the Western world or that they constitute a secret fifth column plotting against non-Muslim societies. The rise of Islamist extremist groups in recent decades has been used to justify broad generalizations about Muslims as inherently violent or sympathetic to terrorism. These tropes have fueled policies such as surveillance of Muslim communities, restrictions on religious practices (including hijab bans), and outright bans on Muslim immigration in some countries.[4]
Most contemporary Islamophobic tropes involve either the exaggeration of violence committed by Muslims or the denial or trivialization of violence against Muslims.[5] Common examples include the claim that Muslims "play the victim" to manipulate public perception, or that Islam is uniquely responsible for terrorism while ignoring or downplaying violence committed by non-Muslims. In recent years, the denial or justification of human rights abuses against Muslims, such as the persecution of the Rohingya in Myanmar or the internment of Uyghurs in China, has been a key component of Islamophobic discourse.[citation needed]
The stereotype that Muslims are inherently violent or predisposed to terrorism is a common Islamophobic trope, often used to justify discrimination, surveillance, and restrictive policies against Muslim communities.[6] This belief is frequently reinforced through selective reporting, media bias, and decontextualized interpretations of Islamic texts. The trope falsely portrays Islam as a uniquely violent religion, despite historical and contemporary violence committed by individuals of various religious and ideological backgrounds.[7]
Studies have shown[who?] that terrorist attacks committed by Muslims receive far more media coverage than those by non-Muslims, contributing to the perception that Islam is uniquely linked to violence. Political leaders have also played a role in spreading this narrative, with figures such as former U.S. President Donald Trump advocating for a Muslim ban by citing terrorism concerns, despite the majority of terrorist attacks in the U.S. being carried out by far-right extremists.[8]
This trope has justified increased surveillance and profiling of Muslim communities. The NYPD's post-9/11 surveillance program specifically targeted Muslims, monitoring mosques, Muslim-owned businesses, and student groups without evidence of criminal activity.[9]
This trope has been used to justify discriminatory policies targeting Muslims worldwide. In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric frequently frames Muslims as violent "invaders," fueling religious riots and lynchings of Muslims accused of eating beef or engaging in "love jihad" (a conspiracy theory that Muslim men seek to convert Hindu women through marriage).[10] In China, the Chinese government has justified the internment of over a million Uyghur Muslims in so-called "re-education" camps by labeling them as security threats and extremists.[11]
One of the most prevalent Islamophobic tropes is the distortion of the Islamic concept of martyrdom. The word "Shaheed" (Arabic: شهيد) or "Shahid" (Persian: شهید) has been adopted into some varieties of English from the Arabic word for martyr.[a] Among Muslims and in some other cultures the word retains a similar or broader meaning.[13]
However, in some places where Muslims and non-Muslims are in conflict words derived from the Arabic "shaheed" have been given strong negative meanings or have become an Islamophobic slur. The word "Shahid" has been recently adopted in Modern Hebrew and Israeli English (Hebrew: שהיד, romanized:Shahid), as a loanword from Palestinian Arabic) and according to Haaretz the word "Shahid" has become "synonymous" with "terrorist" among Hebrew speakers in Israel.[16] The word also appears in Russian, with similar connotations.[20] Particularly when applied to Chechen women who have taken part in suicide bombing or hostage taking during the Chechnya conflict.
"72 virgins" is a reference to the heavenly angels in Islamic depictions of heaven, specifically a fairly obscure Hadith describing them as dark-eyed virgin brides waiting for fallen soldiers in heaven.[21] But despite being a very common Islamophobic trope, and prominent in Anti-Arab racism, the story of "72 virgins", sometimes identified as the Houris, does not actually appear in the Qu'ran, and it is mostly a myth about a myth.[22]
Translations
Some reports of suicide bombers supposedly mentioning "virgins" waiting for them in heaven have allegedly been mistranslated. For example the word used in the original Arabic mat be something that more accurately translates as 'angel' or 'heavenly being'.[23]
The most notable use of the 72 virgins trope was the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) psychological warfare unit's Hebrew language Telegram channel named "72 Virgins – Uncensored".[27][28] The channel shared graphic images and videos of Palestinians taken in the Gaza Strip.[29] The Telegram channel was run by the Israeli military psychological warfare division starting on 9 October 2023, shared graphic images and videos of Palestinians taken in Gaza.[30] The name is a reference to the Islamophobic trope of Muslim combatants being motivated primarily by rewards in the afterlife, including the "72 virgins" in heaven.[31][32] The channel originally presented itself as independent, but due to its privileged access to videos and images taken by soldiers, it was discovered to be run by the psychological warfare division of the IDF. The channel was shut down for operating against policy by targeting Israelis, with the unit's usual role being to target enemy and other international audiences.[33][34][35][36][37] The Wire described the channel as "racist", for using language like, "Roaches to Be Exterminated".[33]
A previous channel that presented itself as independent also turned out to be linked to the IDF. In 2021, Israeli newspaper Haaretz revealed that "Abu Ali Express", a popular news page on Telegram and Twitter purportedly dedicated to "Arab affairs", was actually run by a Jewish Israeli paid consultant to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).[38]
Assaf Moghadam and a few other researchers say Palestinians who are willing to die in attacks on Israelis are motivated by the promise of rewards in the afterlife, that are described in Islamic teachings and various hadiths.[39][40][41] These rewards include forgiveness of sins, protection from hell, a crown of glory, marriage to seventy-two virgins (houris), and the ability to extend these privileges to seventy relatives.[39][41] These promises create a strong incentive for individuals to undertake martyrdom, viewing it as a way to trade their limited earthly possessions for the luxurious rewards promised in paradise.[39] Reports indicate that many are convinced of these rewards, which significantly influences their willingness to undertake martyrdom.[39] Reportedly, there has been at least one case of a suicide bomber taking steps, like wrapping toilet paper around their genitals, to preserve their ability to enjoy these rewards.[39] Assad might. Palestinian media has framed martyrdom in terms of marriage to virgins, further solidifying this expectation.[39]
According to some researchers the story of the 72 virgins promised to suicide bombers in paradise is a myth with no basis in Islam, and it is an Islamophobic trope. The majority of Palestinian suicide bombers are educated and not driven by economic despair. Furthermore, Jihadi leaders themselves reject candidates who seek self-sacrifice for rewards like virgins, as these individuals are considered unfit for such missions. Instead, suicide bombers are typically selected for their ideological commitment, patience, and planning abilities.[42][43] The 72 virgins trope is not relevant to Palestinian religious life, and instead has often been perpetuated by western media. Muslim scholars emphasize that it is not part of Islamic teachings.[44]
Scott Atran, a cultural anthropologist researching terrorism, argued against the narrative that suicide bombers are primarily motivated by the belief in rewards such as 72 virgins. In his research and interviews with jihadi leaders, Atran asserts that he has never encountered a case where suicide bombers were driven by such beliefs, emphasizing that if anyone were to approach jihadi leaders seeking martyrdom for the promise of virgins, the door would immediately be “slammed in their face”.[45]
Political scientistRobert Pape stated in a study of over 2,200 suicide attacks carried out over a 30-year period that 95% of these attacks had nothing to do with promises of 72 virgins or heavenly rewards. Instead, they were a response to foreign occupation; 90% of the attacks were anti-American and occurred in regions under U.S. occupation. The study also noted a dramatic decline in suicide bombings in Israel after the country withdrew from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. Pape argued that suicide bombing is primarily driven by cultural divides, and the failure of other forms of resistance, with suicide bombing emerging as a last resort.[46][47][48]
Conspiracy theories about demography and migration
Since the early 21st century, particularly following the European migrant crisis of 2015, the White genocide conspiracy theory has increasingly targeted Muslims. The theory falsely claims that Muslim immigration and higher birth rates are part of a coordinated effort to replace White populations in Europe and North America. This narrative is often fueled by far-right figures, who depict Muslim migrants as an existential threat to Western civilization, framing their presence as an "invasion" rather than natural demographic shifts caused by conflict, globalization, and labor migration.[52]
Much of this rhetoric is rooted in fears about cultural and religious transformation, with Islam portrayed as inherently incompatible with Western values. Proponents of the conspiracy theory often link it to broader Islamophobic tropes, including the belief that Muslims refuse to assimilate and aim to impose Islamic law (sharia) on non-Muslim societies.[53]
Variations of the trope have also been used against other groups including Jews and black South Africans. These versions of the conspiracy theory often also include Islamophobia or are used in attempts to justify policies biased against Muslim immigrants.[56][57]
Another variant of the white genocide story claimed that violent robberies of South African farmers were an attempt to commit genocide against South Africa's white minority.[61][62][63][64] Some people who claim this version of the story are also intensely Islamophobic, such as Matthew Heimbach from the "Youth for Western Civilization" and right wing Australian politician Peter Dutton.[65][66] In 2018 Dutton tried to argue that white South Africans should be given asylum status in Australia, despite Dutton being in favour of Australia's extremely harsh treatment of other asylum seekers.[67][68][69] The asylum seekers excluded and mistreated by Australia's harshest immigration politics were frequently Muslim, but generally referred to by political dog whistles referring to people coming by boat.[70] Dutton personally argued against Palestinian asylum seekers being given assistance during the Gaza war, despite them already receiving generally unfavorable treatment.[71] Dutton described previous Lebanese immigration as a "mistake".[72]
Occasionally the genera are reversed and Muslim women are accused of causing Hindu men to convert, citing the historical examples of Kalapahad & Tansen.[75]
Far-right politicians and media outlets have promoted the trope of "Muslimgrooming gangs" in the U.K., selectively amplifying cases involving Muslim perpetrators of Pakistani origin while downplaying or ignoring similar crimes committed by non-Muslims.[76]
The taqiyya trope is a widespread Islamophobic misrepresentation that falsely claims Muslims have a religious obligation to deceive non-Muslims. This conspiracy theory is often used to argue that Muslims cannot be trusted, particularly in political, legal, and security contexts. The trope has been widely spread by far-right figures, anti-Muslim activists, and some political leaders to justify discrimination against Muslims and opposition to their participation in public life.[106]
The Islamic concept of taqiyya originates from early Islamic history and refers to a religious dispensation allowing Muslims to conceal their faith when facing extreme persecution or mortal danger. Historically, it was primarily practiced by Shia Muslims in situations where revealing their religious beliefs could result in death or oppression. Despite its limited historical application, Islamophobic discourse has distorted taqiyya into a blanket accusation that all Muslims are permitted—or even required—to lie to non-Muslims for strategic advantage.[107]
The taqiyya trope has been weaponized in political discourse, particularly in Western countries, to cast doubt on the sincerity of Muslim politicians, activists, and community leaders. This claim has been used to justify exclusionary policies and public suspicion toward Muslims in politics, including opposition to the appointment of Muslim public officials in the United States and Europe.[108][109]
The trope has also been widely circulated on social media and far-right websites, where it is used to dismiss any peaceful or conciliatory statements by Muslim individuals as deceptive. Islamophobic groups such as Britain First, ACT for America, and the Identitarian movement have promoted taqiyya as proof that Muslims are waging a "stealth jihad" to infiltrate Western institutions.[110]
Belief in the taqiyya trope has fueled hate crimes and vigilante violence against Muslims. In 2015, an anti-Muslim extremist in the U.S. cited taqiyya as a justification for harassing Muslim store owners, claiming they were "lying about being peaceful." In 2017, far-right groups in Germany spread the false claim that Muslim refugees were using taqiyya to disguise their true extremist beliefs, leading to increased attacks on asylum seekers.[111][112]
The Islam oppresses women trope is a widespread Islamophobic stereotype that portrays Muslim women as universally subjugated and oppressed by Islamic teachings and Muslim men. This narrative is frequently used to justify discriminatory policies, foreign interventions, and anti-Muslim sentiment, often ignoring the diverse experiences of Muslim women and the role of colonialism, geopolitics, and socio-economic factors in shaping gender dynamics in Muslim-majority societies.[113]
The trope has historical roots in Orientalist discourse, where European colonial powers framed Muslim societies as inherently patriarchal to justify intervention and control. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, European colonial authorities used the narrative of "saving" Muslim women from oppression to rationalize imperial expansion in North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[114] This rhetoric has persisted into modern times, with Western political leaders frequently invoking the supposed oppression of Muslim women to justify policies ranging from immigration bans to military interventions.[115]
A key aspect of this misrepresentation is the portrayal of Islamic dress, particularly the hijab, niqab, or burqa, as symbols of forced submission. While some Muslim women face coercion in specific contexts, many others freely choose to wear these garments for cultural, religious, or personal reasons.[116] The assumption that all Muslim women who cover themselves are oppressed disregards their agency and ignores the fact that modest dress exists across many religious traditions, including Christianity and Judaism.[citation needed]
Western media disproportionately highlights cases of gender-based violence in Muslim-majority countries while downplaying similar issues in non-Muslim societies. Honor killings, forced marriages, and domestic violence are framed as intrinsic to Islam, despite Islam's prohibition of all three acts and the prevalence of these crimes across cultures and religions worldwide.[117]
The trope has led to policies that allegedly discriminate against Muslim women. In France, Belgium, and Switzerland, bans on full face coverings (such as the burqa, not including the hijab) restrict Muslim women's autonomy.[118] In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric by the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party has targeted Muslim personal laws, portraying them as oppressive to Muslim women in order to justify it's policies which Muslims view as government interference in religious affairs, like banning triple talaq, amending waqf laws to allow people other than Muslim men to manage waqf properties[119] & abolishing separate personal laws for Muslims in order to implement a uniform civil code while simultaneously enacting discriminatory policies against Muslim communities, such as the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act.[120]
In Western countries Muslim women who wear headscarves are disproportionately targeted in hate crimes. Studies in the US, UK, and Canada show that visibly Muslim women face higher rates of harassment and violence compared to Muslim men. The assumption that Muslim women need "saving" has also fueled Islamophobic discrimination in workplaces and schools, where Muslim women have been denied jobs, education, or public services due to their attire.[121]
Far-right groups and anti-Muslim activists frequently weaponize this trope to push anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies.[122] In Europe and North America, nationalist movements have framed Muslim men as a threat to women's safety. This narrative gained traction after the 2015 European migrant crisis & Cologne sexual assualts when far-right groups exaggerated or fabricated stories about Muslim migrants sexually assaulting European women to justify restrictive immigration policies.[123]
Marine Le Pen, president of the French far-right political party National Rally in France, was gaining support from LGBTQ communities in the presidential election, despite the fact that Jean-Marie Le Pen, her father and the founder of the party, once condemned homosexuality as "a biological and social anomaly".[124] After the Orlando nightclub shooting, Marine Le Pen declared "how much homosexuality is attacked in countries that live under the Islamist jackboot".[124] Facing these threats and receiving "sympathy" from Le Pen, some LGBTQ voters started to advocate for the far-right party, with one supporter stating that "they'll be the first victims of these barbarians, and only Marine is proposing radical solutions".[124]
Islamophobic tropes in entertainment
Pro-Palestinian protest in Los Angeles against the war in Gaza and Hollywood's role in dehumanizing Muslims, November 2023
Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being "uncivilised". Since the Post-9/11 era, in addition to these tropes, a securitization of Muslims; portraying them as a threat to the Western world, have drastically increased in movie depictions.[125]
↑ Yotam Feldner. "72 Black-Eyed Virgins?". Claremont Review of Books. CBS translated the Arabic term hur 'ayn as "virgins." According to two native Arabic speakers, Hafez Al-Mirazi Osman, Washington bureau chief of the Al-Jazeera television network, and Dr. Maher Hathout, a scholar at the Islamic Center of Southern California, the Arabic word has no sexual connotation or gender. Hathout said that a more appropriate translation would be "angel" or "heavenly being".
↑ Gabriel, Karen and P. K. Vijayan, "Orientalism, Terrorism and Bombay Cinema", (2012) Journal of Postcolonial Writing Special Issue on Orientalism and Terrorism, July 2012 volume 48, number 3, pp. 299–310. doi:10.1080/17449855.2012.678744.
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