Since the 20th century, malicious allegations about Muslims have increasingly occurred a recurred as a motif in Islamophobic tropes, often taking the form of libels, stereotypes, or conspiracy theories. These tropes typically portray Muslims as violent, oppressive, or inherently extremist, with some also featuring the denial or trivialization of historical injustices against Muslim communities. These stereotypes have contributed to discrimination, hate crimes, and systemic marginalization of Muslims throughout history.[2]
During the colonial era, European powers advanced the stereotype of Muslims as inherently despotic and backward to legitimize imperial rule over Muslim-majority lands. These tropes often depicted Islam as incompatible with modernity and democracy, reinforcing policies of cultural suppression and economic exploitation.[3]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, Islamophobic narratives evolved into modern conspiracy theories, particularly the notion that Muslims are attempting to "Islamize" the Western world or that they constitute a secret fifth column plotting against non-Muslim societies. The rise of Islamist extremist groups in recent decades has been used to justify broad generalizations about Muslims as inherently violent or sympathetic to terrorism. These tropes have fueled policies such as surveillance of Muslim communities, restrictions on religious practices (including hijab bans), and outright bans on Muslim immigration in some countries.[4]
Most contemporary Islamophobic tropes involve either the exaggeration of violence committed by Muslims or the denial or trivialization of violence against Muslims.[5] Common examples include the claim that Muslims "play the victim" to manipulate public perception, or that Islam is uniquely responsible for terrorism while ignoring or downplaying violence committed by non-Muslims. In recent years, the denial or justification of human rights abuses against Muslims, such as the persecution of the Rohingya in Myanmar or the internment of Uyghurs in China, has been a key component of Islamophobic discourse.[citation needed]
Since the early 21st century, particularly following the European migrant crisis of 2015, the White genocide conspiracy theory has increasingly targeted Muslims. The theory falsely claims that Muslim immigration and higher birth rates are part of a coordinated effort to replace White populations in Europe and North America. This narrative is often fueled by far-right figures, who depict Muslim migrants as an existential threat to Western civilization, framing their presence as an "invasion" rather than natural demographic shifts caused by conflict, globalization, and labor migration.[8]
Much of this rhetoric is rooted in fears about cultural and religious transformation, with Islam portrayed as inherently incompatible with Western values. Proponents of the conspiracy theory often link it to broader Islamophobic tropes, including the belief that Muslims refuse to assimilate and aim to impose Islamic law (sharia) on non-Muslim societies.[9]
Variations of the trope have also been used against other groups including Jews and black South Africans. These versions of the conspiracy theory often also include Islamophobia or are used in attempts to justify policies biased against Muslim immigrants.[12][13]
Another variant of the white genocide story claimed that violent robberies of South African farmers were an attempt to commit genocide against South Africa's white minority.[17][18][19][20] Some people who claim this version of the story are also intensely Islamophobic, such as Matthew Heimbach from the "Youth for Western Civilization" and right wing Australian politician Peter Dutton.[21][22] In 2018 Dutton tried to argue that white South Africans should be given asylum status in Australia, despite Dutton being in favour of Australia's extremely harsh treatment of other asylum seekers.[23][24][25] The asylum seekers excluded and mistreated by Australia's harshest immigration politics were frequently Muslim, but generally referred to by political dog whistles referring to people coming by boat.[26] Dutton personally argued against Palestinian asylum seekers being given assistance during the Gaza genocide, despite them already receiving generally unfavorable treatment.[27] Dutton described previous Lebanese immigration as a "mistake".[28]
"Stop the boats"
The "stop the boats" dog whistle has spread from Australia to the United Kingdom.[29]
Muslims as violent figures
The stereotype that Muslims are inherently violent or predisposed to terrorism is a common Islamophobic trope, often used to justify discrimination, surveillance, and restrictive policies against Muslim communities.[30] This belief is frequently reinforced through selective reporting, media bias, and decontextualized interpretations of Islamic texts. The trope falsely portrays Islam as a uniquely violent religion, despite historical and contemporary violence committed by individuals of various religious and ideological backgrounds.[31]
Studies have shown that terrorist attacks committed by Muslims receive far more media coverage than those by non-Muslims, contributing to the perception that Islam is uniquely linked to violence. Political leaders have also played a role in spreading this narrative, with figures such as former U.S. President Donald Trump advocating for a Muslim ban by citing terrorism concerns, despite the majority of terrorist attacks in the U.S. being carried out by far-right extremists.[32]
This trope has justified increased surveillance and profiling of Muslim communities. The NYPD's post-9/11 surveillance program specifically targeted Muslims, monitoring mosques, Muslim-owned businesses, and student groups without evidence of criminal activity.[33]
This trope has been used to justify discriminatory policies targeting Muslims worldwide. In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric frequently frames Muslims as violent "invaders," fueling religious riots and lynchings of Muslims accused of eating beef or engaging in "love jihad" (a conspiracy theory that Muslim men seek to convert Hindu women through marriage).[34] In China, the Chinese government has justified the internment of over a million Uyghur Muslims in so-called "re-education" camps by labeling them as security threats and extremists.[35]
One of the most prevalent Islamophobic tropes is the distortion of the Islamic concept of Martyrdom. The word "Shaheed" or "Shahid" has been adopted into some varieties of English from the Arabic word for martyr.[a] The word usually retains a similar or broader meaning.[37]
"72 virgins" is a reference to the heavenly angels in Islamic depictions of heaven, specifically a fairly obscure Hadith describing them as dark-eyed virgin brides waiting for fallen soldiers in heaven.[45]
Stone reports of suicide bombers allegedly mentioning "virgins" waiting for them in heaven have allegedly been mistranslated. For example the word used in the original Arabic mat be something that more accurately translates as "angel" or "heavenly being".[46]
The taqiyya trope is a widespread Islamophobic misrepresentation that falsely claims Muslims have a religious obligation to deceive non-Muslims. This conspiracy theory is often used to argue that Muslims cannot be trusted, particularly in political, legal, and security contexts. The trope has been widely spread by far-right figures, anti-Muslim activists, and some political leaders to justify discrimination against Muslims and opposition to their participation in public life.[51]
The Islamic concept of taqiyya originates from early Islamic history and refers to a religious dispensation allowing Muslims to conceal their faith when facing extreme persecution or mortal danger. Historically, it was primarily practiced by Shia Muslims in situations where revealing their religious beliefs could result in death or oppression. Despite its limited historical application, Islamophobic discourse has distorted taqiyya into a blanket accusation that all Muslims are permitted—or even required—to lie to non-Muslims for strategic advantage.[52]
The taqiyya trope has been weaponized in political discourse, particularly in Western countries, to cast doubt on the sincerity of Muslim politicians, activists, and community leaders. This claim has been used to justify exclusionary policies and public suspicion toward Muslims in politics, including opposition to the appointment of Muslim public officials in the United States and Europe.[53][54]
The trope has also been widely circulated on social media and far-right websites, where it is used to dismiss any peaceful or conciliatory statements by Muslim individuals as deceptive. Islamophobic groups such as Britain First, ACT for America, and the Identitarian movement have promoted taqiyya as proof that Muslims are waging a "stealth jihad" to infiltrate Western institutions.[55]
Belief in the taqiyya trope has fueled hate crimes and vigilante violence against Muslims. In 2015, an anti-Muslim extremist in the U.S. cited taqiyya as a justification for harassing Muslim store owners, claiming they were "lying about being peaceful." In 2017, far-right groups in Germany spread the false claim that Muslim refugees were using taqiyya to disguise their true extremist beliefs, leading to increased attacks on asylum seekers.[56][57]
The Islam oppresses women trope is a widespread Islamophobic stereotype that portrays Muslim women as universally subjugated and oppressed by Islamic teachings and Muslim men. This narrative is frequently used to justify discriminatory policies, foreign interventions, and anti-Muslim sentiment, often ignoring the diverse experiences of Muslim women and the role of colonialism, geopolitics, and socio-economic factors in shaping gender dynamics in Muslim-majority societies.[58]
The trope has historical roots in Orientalist discourse, where European colonial powers framed Muslim societies as inherently patriarchal to justify intervention and control. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, European colonial authorities used the narrative of "saving" Muslim women from oppression to rationalize imperial expansion in North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[59] This rhetoric has persisted into modern times, with Western political leaders frequently invoking the supposed oppression of Muslim women to justify policies ranging from immigration bans to military interventions.[60]
A key aspect of this misrepresentation is the portrayal of Islamic dress, particularly the hijab, niqab, or burqa, as symbols of forced submission. While some Muslim women face coercion in specific contexts, many others freely choose to wear these garments for cultural, religious, or personal reasons.[61] The assumption that all Muslim women who cover themselves are oppressed disregards their agency and ignores the fact that modest dress exists across many religious traditions, including Christianity and Judaism.[citation needed]
Western media disproportionately highlights cases of gender-based violence in Muslim-majority countries while downplaying similar issues in non-Muslim societies. Honor killings, forced marriages, and domestic violence are framed as intrinsic to Islam, despite Islam's prohibition of all three acts and the prevalence of these crimes across cultures and religions worldwide.[62]
The trope has led to policies that allegedly discriminate against Muslim women. In France, Belgium, and Switzerland, bans on full face coverings (such as the burqa, not including the hijab) restrict Muslim women's autonomy.[63] In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric has targeted Muslim personal laws, portraying them as oppressive to Muslim women while simultaneously enacting discriminatory policies against Muslim communities, such as the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act.[64]
In Western countries Muslim women who wear headscarves are disproportionately targeted in hate crimes. Studies in the US, UK, and Canada show that visibly Muslim women face higher rates of harassment and violence compared to Muslim men. The assumption that Muslim women need "saving" has also fueled Islamophobic discrimination in workplaces and schools, where Muslim women have been denied jobs, education, or public services due to their attire.[65]
Far-right groups and anti-Muslim activists frequently weaponize this trope to push anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies.[66] In Europe and North America, nationalist movements have framed Muslim men as a threat to women's safety. This narrative gained traction after the 2015 European migrant crisis, when far-right groups exaggerated or fabricated stories about Muslim migrants sexually assaulting European women to justify restrictive immigration policies.[67]
Similarly, far-right politicians and media outlets have promoted the trope of "Muslim grooming gangs" in the U.K., selectively amplifying cases involving Muslim perpetrators while downplaying or ignoring similar crimes committed by non-Muslims.[68]
Marine Le Pen, president of the French far-right political party National Rally in France, was gaining support from LGBTQ communities in the presidential election, despite the fact that Jean-Marie Le Pen, her father and the founder of the party, once condemned homosexuality as "a biological and social anomaly".[69] After the Orlando nightclub shooting, Marine Le Pen declared "how much homosexuality is attacked in countries that live under the Islamist jackboot".[69] Facing these threats and receiving "sympathy" from Le Pen, some LGBTQ voters started to advocate for the far-right party, with one supporter stating that "they'll be the first victims of these barbarians, and only Marine is proposing radical solutions".[69]
Islamophobic tropes in entertainment
Pro-Palestinian protest in Los Angeles against the war in Gaza and Hollywood's role in dehumanizing Muslims, November 2023.
Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being "uncivilised". Since the Post-9/11 era, in addition to these tropes, a securitization of Muslims; portraying them as a threat to the Western world, have drastically increased in movie depictions.[70]
There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or Bollywood, in films such as Aamir (2008), New York (2009) and My Name is Khan (2010), which corresponds to a growing anti-minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right.[71][72]
↑ Yotam Feldner. "72 Black-Eyed Virgins?". Claremont Review of Books. CBS translated the Arabic term hur 'ayn as "virgins." According to two native Arabic speakers, Hafez Al-Mirazi Osman, Washington bureau chief of the Al-Jazeera television network, and Dr. Maher Hathout, a scholar at the Islamic Center of Southern California, the Arabic word has no sexual connotation or gender. Hathout said that a more appropriate translation would be "angel" or "heavenly being".
↑ Gabriel, Karen and P. K. Vijayan, "Orientalism, Terrorism and Bombay Cinema", (2012) Journal of Postcolonial Writing Special Issue on Orientalism and Terrorism, July 2012 volume 48, number 3, pp. 299–310. doi:10.1080/17449855.2012.678744.
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