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Islamophobia in Norway refers to the set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam and/or Muslims in Norway. [1] [2] Islamophobia can manifest itself through discrimination in the workforce, negative coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims.
In October 2015, a Muslim convert named Malika Bayan (née Charlotte Antonsen [3] ) was turned away from a hair salon in Bryne by a hairdresser named Merete Hodne who said that she saw the hijab as "a totalitarian symbol" and a "political symbol representing an ideology that frightens her", rather than a religious one. Hodne was subsequently charged 10,000 kroner for religious discrimination, after refusing to pay the initial fine of 8000 kroner. [4] Former MP Peter N. Myhre sided with Hodne, arguing a hijab was similar to a Nazi uniform and denounced the court system for convicting her of discrimination. [5] It was revealed by Norwegian media prior to the court ruling that Merete Hodne was once a member of the anti-Islam group PEGIDA. [6] Bayan, who has since changed her name to Charlotte Faviano, revealed to Norwegian media in May 2020 that she had been forced to wear the hijab by her abusive ex-husband who in 2017 was sentenced to one year and eight months imprisonment for abusing her over a period of three years. [7]
In a national representative survey from 2012, prepared by the Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, 66 per cent of those surveyed reported that they would "strongly dislike" (38 per cent) or "dislike" (28 per cent) a Muslim to be married into their family. [8] [9]
A 2012 study by researchers at the Institutt for Samfunnsforskning found that job applicants with Pakistani-sounding or Muslim-sounding names received 25% less callbacks from employers than true Norwegian applicants given exact similar qualifications and work experience. The observed net discrimination was weaker in females (16%) than males (37,4%). [10] An older 2006 study concluded that Somali and Iraqi immigrants faced the most discrimination of any immigrant group in the labor market and housing. [11]
Research by the Institutt for Samfunnsforskning in 2014 concluded that the coverage of Islam and Muslims in Norway in an academic setting further negative societal attitudes. [12]
In June 2018, Norway's parliament voted to ban the burqa and niqab in schools, nurseries and universities. This makes it one of ten European countries to restrict the religious attire of Muslim women. [13]
In August 2014, MP Ulf Leirstein (then Progress Party, now independent) was criticized for making reference to the Eurabia conspiracy theory in reference to immigration. [14] [ failed verification ] Leirstein also accused Muslim MP Hadia Tajik (Labour Party) of supporting ISIS and practicing taqiyya. [15] [ failed verification ] Vice Chairman of the Progress Party, MP Per Sandberg, defended Leirstein's statements as "freedom of expression." [14] [ failed verification ]
Following a March 2017 ruling by the European Court of Human Rights upholding the ban on headscarves at work, former leader of the Progress Party, Carl I. Hagen, expressed support for banning municipality employees in Oslo from wearing "political, religious or philosophical symbols at work", including the hijab. Councillor Tone Tellevik Dahl (Labour Party) rejected the suggestion. [16]
The Convention Against All Forms of Racial Discrimination raised concerns in 2015 about an "increase in... [hate] speech and xenophobic discourse by politicians, in the media and in other public platforms" in Norway. [17]
The Norwegian government has been criticized by the European Council's European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance, the United Nation's Convention Against All Forms of Racial Discrimination Commission, and the Norwegian Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud for a lack of sustained efforts against hate speech. [18] The first ever sentence against a Norwegian citizen for hate speech targeting a Muslim was in October 2014. [19] Norwegian Muslims interviewed for a newspaper report in Aftenposten about this issue in August 2015 asserted that "Muslims do not report hate crimes" since they had "no confidence in the police taking it seriously." [20]
In 1985 the Ahmadiyya Muslim Nor mosque at Frogner in Oslo was blasted with dynamite. A woman of 38 suffered from smoke inhalation. The bomb was detonated by an activist from the National People's Party, which resulted in several other people from the party being arrested by the police. [21]
In May 2016 a woman was caught on camera trying to set fire to a mosque in Oslo, having been allowed into the building by asking to use its lavatory. [22]
In February 2015, three men were charged with racist-motivated violence against two Norwegian Kurds in downtown Oslo. The perpetrators allegedly yelled “Fucking Muslims, you don’t have anything to do here” and “Go back, fucking terrorists” while kicking and punching the victims in their heads and bodies. Two of the perpetrators had ties to neo-Nazi groups in Norway. [23]
On 10 August 2019 21 year old lone gunman Philip Manshaus opened fire on a mosque in Bærum, Norway, a suburbia 20 kilometers outside of Oslo. He injured one person and was then subdued by two worshippers. At the time of the shooting there were three congregants in the mosque before the gunman opened fire on the Al Noor Islamic center of Bærum. Before the incident he killed his adopted stepsister at their home and posted on 4chan ten minutes prior to the failed attack, praising the Christchurch shooter, the Poway synagogue shooter and the El Paso shooter. [24] In June 2020 the two worshippers who prevented the attack, Muhammad Rafiq and Mohammad Iqbal, were awarded the Medal for Heroic Deeds. [25] Manshaus was sentenced to 21 years in prison a few days earlier. [26]
Fedrelandet viktigst is a Facebook group for Norwegians opposed to immigration. The group was mocked after it posted a picture of empty bus seats, which it had mistaken for burka-clad women. Users in the group claimed it represented the "Islamification" of Norway. Rune Berglund Steen, the leader of the Norwegian Centre Against Racism, said the irrational response to six empty bus seats demonstrates that "people see what they want to see and what they want to see are dangerous Muslims." [27]
The Norwegian Defense League is an anti-Islamic [28] [29] [30] group closely associated with the English Defence League (EDL). [28] [29] The NDL is an offshoot of the European Defence League and was formed around New Year 2010/2011, inspired by the EDL which had been formed in 2009. There were conflicts regarding the leadership of the group, and it was immersed in a struggle involving multiple competing factions in early 2011. The group was eventually led by Lena Andreassen for about a month until she was dismissed by EDL appointed liaison officer Steve Simmons following a failed demonstration that was held on 9 April 2011. The NDL has been headed by a board of administrators since then, and one of its leading figures has been Ronny Alte. Alte said that the group is not far-right or racist and that the NDL seeks to gather people of all races to fight for democracy and freedom of speech, which he said is threatened by "the ideology Islam." He also said that the group is not anti-Islam, but Islam-critical. [30] Alte resigned abruptly both as leader and member of the NDL on 19 April 2012 over a dispute with the rest of the organisation's leadership related to its connection with Anders Behring Breivik. [31]
Stop Islamisation of Norway is a Norwegian organisation which was established in 2008, although its history goes back to a group started in 2000. [32] Its stated aim is to work against Islam, which it defines as a totalitarian political ideology that violates the Norwegian Constitution as well as democratic and human values. [33] The organisation is led by Arne Tumyr, who claimed a member count of about 3000 people in a 2011 interview. [33] While the group claims to solely criticize religion, it has been accused of promoting stigmatization, exclusion, and discrimination towards Norwegian Muslims. [34]
The Norwegian Centre Against Racism and the Organisation Against Public Discrimination work to counter what they view as discriminatory attitudes and ideas. The Lutheran State Church in Norway encourages interfaith dialogue and relations with Norwegian Muslims. The Church also has contacts with the Islamic Council Norway. [35]
In modern usage, hijab generally refers to various headcoverings conventionally worn by most Muslim women. While a hijab can come in many forms, it often specifically refers to a headscarf, wrapped around the head and neck, covering the hair, neck, and ears but leaving the face visible. The use of the hijab has been on the rise worldwide since the 1970s and is viewed by many Muslims as expressing modesty and faith. There is a consensus among Islamic religious scholars that covering the head is either required or preferred, though some Muslim scholars and activists argue that it is not mandated.
Islamophobia is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general, especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of terrorism.
Islam in Canada is a minority religion practised mostly by the immigrants and their descendants from Muslim majority countries. Muslims have lived in Canada since 1871 and the first mosque was established in 1938. Most Canadian Muslims are Sunni, while a significant minority are Shia and Ahmadiyya.
The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) is a national umbrella body with over 500 mosques and educational and charitable associations affiliated to it. It includes national, regional, local, and specialist Muslim organisations and institutions from different ethnic and sectarian backgrounds within major parts of, but not all, British Islamic society.
Islam is the second largest religion in Norway after Christianity. As of 2021, the number of Muslims living in Norway was 169,605. The majority of Muslims in Norway are Sunni, with a significant Shia minority. 55 percent of Muslims in the country live in Oslo and Akershus. The vast majority of Muslims have an immigrant background, and very few Norwegians are Muslim.
The English Defence League (EDL) is a far-right, Islamophobic and generally xenophobic organisation in the United Kingdom. A social movement and pressure group that employs street demonstrations as its main tactic, the EDL presents itself as a single-issue movement opposed to Islamism and Islamic extremism, although its rhetoric and actions target Islam and Muslims more widely. Founded in 2009, its heyday lasted until 2011, after which it entered a decline.
Stop Islamisation of Norway is a Norwegian anti-Muslim group that was originally established in 2000. Its stated aim is to work against Islam, which it defines as a totalitarian political ideology that violates the Norwegian Constitution as well as democratic and human values. The organisation was formerly led by Arne Tumyr, and is now led by Lars Thorsen.
Hege Storhaug is a Norwegian political activist and author. Since the 1990s she has been known for her criticism of Islam and later anti-immigration activism. She formerly worked as a journalist, and now runs the small anti-Islam organization Human Rights Service with her partner. In 2015 she published the bestselling book Islam, den 11. landeplage, later translated to English as Islam: Europe Invaded. America Warned, which claimed that Islam is a "plague." Scholars and commentators have described her views as far-right and Islamophobic.
Document.no is a Norwegian far-right anti-immigration online newspaper. Academics have identified Document.no as an anti-Muslim website permeated by the Eurabia conspiracy theory. The website received global media attention in connection with the 2011 Norway attacks due to its association with perpetrator Anders Behring Breivik, a former comment section poster on the website.
The Norwegian Centre Against Racism or Anti-Racism Centre is a non-governmental organization based in Oslo, Norway established in 1983. The organization’s main objective is to achieve a socially just society through the fight against racism and discrimination. The Centre works toward its objective through the documentation and prevention of racism, racism awareness, and the mobilization of the minority population in Norway.
The European Defence League (EDL) is a largely UK-based offshoot of the English Defence League founded by Tommy Robinson which campaigns against what it considers sharia law and itself has various offshoots. The group was set up in October 2010 and held its first demonstration that month in Amsterdam, Netherlands, at the trial of Dutch anti-Islam politician Geert Wilders.
American Muslims often face Islamophobia and racialization due to stereotypes and generalizations ascribed to them. Due to this, Islamophobia is both a product of and a contributor to the United States' racial ideology, which is founded on socially constructed categories of profiled features, or how people seem.
Islamophobia in Australia is highly speculative and affective distrust and hostility towards Muslims, Islam, and those perceived as following the religion. This social aversion and bias is often facilitated and perpetuated in the media through the stereotyping of Muslims as violent and uncivilised. Various Australian politicians and political commentators have capitalised on these negative stereotypes and this has contributed to the marginalisation, discrimination and exclusion of the Muslim community.
Islamophobia in Canada refers to a set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam or Muslims in Canada.
Islamophobia in the United Kingdom refers to a set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam or Muslims in the United Kingdom. Islamophobia can manifest itself in a wide range of ways; including, discrimination in the workforce, negative coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims.
Iman Meskini is a Norwegian actress. She is best known for playing the role of Sana Bakkoush in the teen drama series Skam.
Islamophobia in Sweden refers to the set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam and/or Muslims in Sweden. Historically, attitudes towards Muslims in Sweden have been mixed with relations being largely negative in the early 16th century, improving in the 18th century, and declining once again with the rise of Swedish nationalism in the early 20th century. According to Jonas Otterbeck, a Swedish historian of religion, attitudes towards Islam and Muslims today have improved but "the level of prejudice was and is still high." Islamophobia can manifest itself through discrimination in the workforce, prejudiced coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims. The anti-immigration and anti-Islam Sweden Democrats is the second largest party in the Riksdag.
Hijabophobia is a type of religious and cultural discrimination against Muslim women who wear the hijab. The discrimination has had manifestations in public, working and educational places.
While the constitution of Norway establishes that the King of Norway must be Evangelical Lutheran, it also establishes that all individuals have the right to exercise their religion. The government's policies generally support the free practice of religion in the country, and it provides funding to religious organizations and anti-discrimination programs on a regular basis. According to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Norwegian police, religiously motivated hate speech is prevalent, particularly online, and primarily targeting the Muslim and Jewish communities.