Islamophobia in Italy

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The Mosque of Rome, the Western world's largest mosque Mosque of Rome.jpg
The Mosque of Rome, the Western world's largest mosque

Islamophobia is characterized by a hatred against the religion of Islam and those perceived to be following the religion, typically fueled by fear and hatred and sustained through the evolving stereotype of the Muslim identity. [1] It has become increasingly common and widespread throughout the world, in particular since the September 11 attacks in the United States, however it existed in society before this. [1] In Europe, there has been an increase in cultural tensions between national majorities and marginalized Muslim countries, [2] as shown by the results of the 2009 elections in the European Parliament with a large vote toward anti-immigration. [3] Within Italy, there is a large Islamic presence of approximately 1.25 million people, [2] stemming from the widespread migration and settlement that began in the 1970s, in particular from North Africa. The Islamic population of Italy increasingly faces challenges when it comes to their position in society, with the increasing cultural hostility that stems from the growing presence of Islamophobia. Islamophobia has been present within Italy for many years; for example, in the 1920s, Muslims were not permitted to settle in the country due to their religion being viewed as "against common morality." [4] The intensity of Islamophobia in Italy is enhanced by the historical religious structure of the state – which is heavily based on the Catholic Church. [5]

Contents

Definition

There is no official legal or social definition for Islamophobia; [3] however, it can be defined as a "form of racial prejudice", [6] especially as a political force, and "manifests as a distorted simplification of Islam and the Muslim world". [7] Almost a quarter of the world's population identify as Muslim, making it an extremely prevalent religion. Furthermore, Islamophobia often overlaps with other forms of discrimination and religious bias, making it difficult to recognize. [3]

Islam in Italy

Prevalence

There was a large Muslim presence in Italy from 827 until the 12th century.[ citation needed ] According to a 2011 Pew Research Center report, there were approximately 1,583,000 Muslims in Italy as of 2010, about 2.6% of the Italian population. [8]

Theories

There are multiple sources of anti-Islamic prejudices, with reasoning often being based on "race, ethnicity, cultural differences, socio-economics". [1] Despite the September 11 attacks on the United States immensely enhancing and propelling the prevalence of Islamophobia, the sentiments of anti-Islamic thought have existed well prior to this, in part due to the perceived lack of integration of Muslim migrants in Europe. [2] A discussion in contemporary literature focuses on the concept that Islamophobia is becoming institutionalized, rather than individuals acting on their own. [7]

There is yet another source of anti-Islamic racism, which stems from an Islamophobic intolerance by Italian Catholics who espouse Christianity. The Cardinal of Bologna, Giacomo Biffi, also claimed that Europe should go back to its Christian origins in order to resist the "ideological assault of Islam." [4] Further, Biffi states that he considers Muslims as a threat to Italian cultural identity and as posing legal and social problems.

Contributions

Islamophobia has existed around the world for an extensive time as well as within Italy; however, it has become increasingly prevalent since the September 11 Attacks. The new global hegemony structure of the 21st century has allowed for the expansion of anti-Islamic discourse, with "Muslim populations finding themselves increasingly encoded as the new 'evil other'". [9] One of the main contributing forces to the increase in Islamophobia is the media, through the multiple platforms that present powerful channels for information and ultimately opinions to spread and cultivate in society. [3] The media "bear a heavy responsibility in their representation of minority groups." [3] Due to the reaction that prevailed following the September 11 attacks, a significant shift was seen, with prejudices towards Islam becoming more common. In a world of free media, where freedom of speech is a defining factor, the circulation of misinformed and prejudiced [5] information is inevitable. This has ultimately allowed for the spread of Islamophobia. The media's use of ambiguous and duplicitous words and ways allow for public speculation and the spread of often misinformed and prejudiced sentiments towards Muslim people. This was demonstrated with the media reports on the various terrorist attacks in Europe since September 11, including those in Nice and Berlin, where the term "Islamic terrorism" [10] was used, leading to an increase in prejudice toward the religion.

Social media

In particular, social media has provided a significant platform for the expression of anti-Islamic sentiments, providing a powerful outlet for racist and xenophobic hate messages. The Islamophobia in Europe report [10] identifies that in 2014, there was a total of 347 recorded cases of racist expressions on various social networks reported on the UNAR (National Office Against Racial Discrimination).

Legislations

Current legislations that are in place in Italy are contributing to the anti-Islamic sentiments, particularly those that make the migrant position in the country precarious. This includes the ‘Bossi-Fini’ law of 2002 on immigration which introduced criminal sanctions for persons who are caught illegally entering the country, [11] which created a sense of hostility against migrants. A further development of this law in 2005 which improved the instruments to fight the threat of terrorist organisations. [3] In 2009, the Italian Parliament passed further laws on the topic of immigration, including the Law No. 94/2009. on "provisions relating to public safety." [3] The combination of these laws among others became part of a "security package," part of which criminalises illegal immigration. [3] Such laws have incited concerns among institutional and civil society actors, with The Council of Europe stating that "concern about security cannot be the only basis for immigration policy." [3] Such laws have also sparked questions about the welfare of immigrants within Italy. [12]

Surrounding attacks

Much of the recent Anti-Islamic sentiments recognized come as a result of attacks perpetrated by extremist Islamist groups, particularly in many European countries in the last 10 years. Reports of the multiple terror incidents led to widespread exposure as well as social media playing a role in the formation of anti-Islamic sentiments as a result. [13]

Incidents

There are varying estimates of the presence of anti-Islamic sentiments within Italy. Anti-Islamic incidents have occurred within and around Italy for decades, however their severity and frequency has significantly increased since September 11, 2001. The psychosis amongst the general population of the possibility of a terrorist attack is becoming increasingly high in Italy and Europe in general, [14] due in part to the many incidents related to Islamic terrorism in surrounding countries, including the attacks in Nice, Rouen, Reutlingen and Berlin. Despite these attacks being perpetrated by a small minority of extremists, it has led to a widespread consensus and prejudice of Islam as a violent religion, and has contributed to various anti-Islamic incidents.

Within Italy

Within the employment industry, incidents of anti-Islam have been reported. Under legislation, recruitment in the public sector requires the possession of Italian or EU citizenship. [10] Whereas, in the private sector, a lack of adequate education amongst the immigrant population has led to a low percentage of immigrants in high-skilled jobs. [10]

Within Italian politics, anti-Islam sentiments have been identified as more apparent since September 11, particular from right-wing political alignments. [10]

Specific incidents

No specific incident have occurred in Italy, except for a Northern League rally where was stated that there is a “risk that the white race disappears and is replaced by migrants.”

  • March 2018 – the Northern League’s candidate for president of the Lombardy region of Italy stated that there is a “risk that the white race disappears and is replaced by migrants.” [15]

Responses

Negative

The Lega Nord, which is a right-wing political party in Italy, has increasingly been linked to anti-Islamic discourse since 2001, [14] introducing multiple "federal reforms and immigration law and order." [16] Multiple significant Lega representatives have been involved in a number of infamous incidents which prompted protests by the Italian public. In 2016, a controversial legislative issue occurred with the adoption of a regional law that regulated the construction of new placed of worship, including mosques. This is a clear breach of the fundamental right of religious freedom which is enshrined in the Italian constitution, and was dubbed the "Anti-Mosque Law." Furthermore the respinimenti measure taken by the Lega Nord government rejected multiple boats of immigrants mainly from North-Africa. [16] In 2016, some leaders in Italy briefly discussed copying the French ban on burkinis at some beaches in France, but ultimately decided not to implement that ban. [17] At least one Italian locality's Lega mayor attempted to ban Muslim prayers and burkinis at the beach in 2024, leading to tensions in the city. [18]

An Italian political scientist known as Giovanni Santori, wrote in his book that Muslim immigrants are an “invasive” presence who will bring “disorder and desegregation”. [4] His writing had an impact on many people in Italy who seem to agree with his statements that Islamophobia stems from a "cultural-religious" [4] refusal.

On September 28, 2001, a week after the September 11 attacks, the Corriere della Sera, an Italian newspaper, published an article titled "Rage and Pride." In this article, the author accuses the West of being "too soft" on Islam and Muslim immigrants. [19]

Positive

There have been multiple initiatives undertaken by the Italian government and other institutions in an attempt to render the anti-Islamic sentiments that are present in society. This includes suggestions presented by government representatives to introduce practices and measures that support and promote equality amongst the population and a reduction in prejudicial attitudes towards the Muslim population.

Measures taken to suppress the spread of Islamophobia through the media in particular in social media platforms are shown through the work of the UNARs Media and Social Network Observatory on hate speech. [10]

A new project has been undertaken to combat Islamophobia called "Stop Islamophobia." This project is taking place from November 2018-October 2020 and is working to address the root causes of Islamophobia in Italy and Europe. [20]

Statistics

Italians who responded to the Ipsos Perils of Perception Survey of 2016, were presented with the statement: "All further migration from mainly Muslim countries should be stopped’". As the report reveals, the majorities in all but two of the ten states agreed to this statement with 51% agreement in Italy. [21]

The Eurobarometer on discrimination addresses this topic showing that 39% of Italian respondents say they would be uncomfortable working with a Muslim person. In addition, only 41% of Italian respondents said that they would feel at ease if one of their children was in a love relationship with a Muslim person.[ citation needed ]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia</span> Dislike of anything that is perceived to be foreign or strange

Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group that is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.

Islamophobia is the irrational fear of, hostility towards, or hatred against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general. Islamophobia is primarily a form of religious or cultural bigotry; and people who harbour such sentiments often stereotype Muslims as a geopolitical threat or a source of terrorism. Muslims, with diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, are often inaccurately portrayed by Islamophobes as a single homogenous racial group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurabia conspiracy theory</span> Far-right Islamophobic conspiracy theory

"Eurabia" is a far-right, anti-Muslim conspiracy theory that posits that globalist entities, led by French and Arab powers, aim to Islamize and Arabize Europe, thereby weakening its existing culture and undermining its previous alliances with the United States and Israel.

Opposition to immigration, also known as anti-immigration, is a political ideology that seeks to restrict immigration. In the modern sense, immigration refers to the entry of people from one state or territory into another state or territory in which they are not citizens. Illegal immigration occurs when people immigrate to a country without having official permission to do so. Opposition to immigration ranges from calls for various immigration reforms, to proposals to completely restrict immigration, to calls for repatriation of existing immigrants.

Document.no is a Norwegian far-right anti-immigration online newspaper. Academics have identified Document.no as an anti-Muslim website permeated by the Eurabia conspiracy theory. The website received global media attention in connection with the 2011 Norway attacks due to its association with perpetrator Anders Behring Breivik, a former comment section poster on the website.

Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against people who belong to or originate from the various ethnic groups of the Middle East. Although it is commonly associated with Islamophobia, as Muslims constitute the majority of the region's population, it is a distinct type of hatred in itself and may not always stem from religion-based animosity. People who harbour negative feelings towards the region's people view them as barbaric and inferior on racial, ethnic, cultural, or religious grounds, or a combination of any of these factors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in the United Kingdom</span>

Racism in the United Kingdom has a long history and includes structural discrimination and hostile attitudes against various ethnic minorities. The extent and the targets have varied over time. It has resulted in cases of discrimination, riots and racially motivated murders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamophobia in the United States</span> Prejudice towards Islam or Muslims in the US

American Muslims often face Islamophobia and racialization due to stereotypes and generalizations ascribed to them. Due to this, Islamophobia is both a product of and a contributor to the United States' racial ideology, which is founded on socially constructed categories of profiled features, or how people seem.

Islamophobia in Australia is distrust and hostility towards Muslims, Islam, and those perceived as following the religion. This social aversion and bias is often facilitated and perpetuated in the media through the stereotyping of Muslims as violent and uncivilised. Various Australian politicians and political commentators have capitalised on these negative stereotypes and this has contributed to the marginalisation, discrimination and exclusion of the Muslim community.

Islamophobia in the media refers to negative coverage of Islam-related topics, Muslims, or Arabs by media outlets in a way that is hostile, untrue, and/or misleading. Islamophobia is defined as "Intense dislike or fear of Islam, especially as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims", and the study of how and to what extent the media furthers Islamophobia has been the subject of much academic and political discussion.

Islamophobia in Canada refers to a set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam or Muslims in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural racism</span> Alleged type of racism that discriminates people for being culturally different

Cultural racism is a concept that has been applied to prejudices and discrimination based on cultural differences between ethnic or racial groups. This includes the idea that some cultures are superior to others or in more extreme cases that various cultures are fundamentally incompatible and should not co-exist in the same society or state. In this it differs from biological or scientific racism, which refers to prejudices and discrimination rooted in perceived biological differences between ethnic or racial groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamophobia in China</span>

Islamophobia in China refers to the set of discourses, behaviors and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam and/or Muslims in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farid Hafez</span> Austrian political scientist

Farid Hafez is an Austrian political scientist and holds the endowed chair of Class of 1955 Distinguished Visiting Professor of International Studies at Williams College and senior researcher at Georgetown University's The Bridge Initiative. Before his role at Williams College, he was at the department of political science and sociology at the University of Salzburg.

Islamophobia in Sweden refers to the set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings of anxiety, fear, hostility and rejection towards Islam and/or Muslims in Sweden. Historically, attitudes towards Muslims in Sweden have been mixed with relations being largely negative in the early 16th century, improving in the 18th century, and declining once again with the rise of Swedish nationalism in the early 20th century. According to Jonas Otterbeck, a Swedish historian of religion, attitudes towards Islam and Muslims today have improved but "the level of prejudice was and is still high." Islamophobia can manifest itself through discrimination in the workforce, prejudiced coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims. The anti-immigration and anti-Islam Sweden Democrats is the second largest party in the Riksdag.

Allegations of Islamophobia in the UK Conservative Party have been made, including against senior politicians, such as Boris Johnson, Michael Gove and Zac Goldsmith. Baroness Warsi, former co-chair of the Conservative Party, said in 2018 that anti-Muslim prejudice had "poisoned" the party. Many Muslim party members welcomed Warsi's comments, saying that they felt the issue had been marginalised within the party.

Islamophobia in France holds a particularly political significance since France has the largest proportion of Muslims in the Western world, primarily due to the migration from Maghrebi, West African, and Middle Eastern countries. The existence of discrimination against Muslims is reported by the media in the Muslim world and by the perceived segregation and alienation of Muslims within the French community. The belief that there is an anti-Muslim climate in France is heavily criticised by some members of the French Muslim community who terms it an 'exaggeration'.

Islamophobia in Poland is the fear, hatred of, or prejudice against the Islamic religion or Muslims in Poland. Since the Muslim community in Poland is small the situation has been described as "Islamophobia without Muslims". According to Monika Bobako, Islamophobia is one of the main elements of the Polish nationalist discourse. Islamophobia in Poland takes the form of xenophobia and discrimination towards Muslims or those perceived as Muslim.

Anti-Chechen sentiment, Chechenophobia, anti-Chechenism, or Nokhchophobia, refers to fear, dislike, hostility, hatred, discrimination, and racism towards ethnic Chechens, the Chechen language, or the Chechen culture in general. Anti-Chechen sentiment has been historically strong in Russia, and to some degree has spread to other countries in the former Soviet Union, such as Azerbaijan, to Europe, the Middle East, and to the United States. For decades, the main causes of hatred against Chechens have been largely due to the created narrative which depicts a violent mentality of Chechens, the association of Chechens with Islamic extremism, and Russian imperialist propaganda targeted at Chechens.

Demographic jihad or population jihad is a purported phenomenon in which Muslims migrate to or have many children in a particular region in order to demographically and otherwise dominate it.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Sadek, Noha (2017). "Islamophobia, Shame and the Collapse of Muslim Identities". International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies. 14 (3): 200–221. doi:10.1002/aps.1534.
  2. 1 2 3 Triandafyllidou, Anna, ed. (2010). Muslims in 21st Century Europe. doi:10.4324/9780203877845. ISBN   978-1-134-00445-4.[ page needed ]
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pföstl, Eva (9 February 2011). "Between Fear and Integration: Islamophobia in Contemporary Italy". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 8 (1): 45–70. doi:10.1163/22116117-90001665.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Schmidt di Friedberg, Ottavia; Blion, Reynald (2000). "Du Sénégal à New York, quel avenir pour la confrérie mouride ? un entretien entre Ottavia Schmidt di Friedberg et Reynald Blion" [From Senegal to New York, what future for the Mouride brotherhood? an interview between Ottavia Schmidt di Friedberg and Reynald Blion]. Hommes & Migrations (in French). 1224 (1): 36–45. doi:10.3406/homig.2000.3478.
  5. 1 2 Cere, R (2002). "Islamophobia and the media in Italy". Feminist Media Studies. 2: 133–136. doi:10.1080/146807702753745392. S2CID   143907923.
  6. ↑ Padovan, Dario; Alietti, Alfredo (May 2012). "THE RACIALIZATION OF PUBLIC DISCOURSE: Antisemitism and Islamophobia in Italian society". European Societies. 14 (2): 186–202. doi:10.1080/14616696.2012.676456.
  7. 1 2 Elman, Miriam (2019). "Islamophobia". Israel Studies. 24 (2): 144–156. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.12. S2CID   239369175.
  8. ↑ The Future of the Global Muslim Population (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. 2011. OCLC   698477481.
  9. ↑ Poynting & Mason, Scott & Victoria. "The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001". Journal of Sociology. 43 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1177/1440783307073935. S2CID   145065236.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research 2016, European Islamophobia Report 2016, Bayrakli, E & Hafez, F (eds), viewed 28 March 2019,  https://www.islamophobiaeurope.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ITALY.pdf .
  11. ↑ Frisina, Annalisa (November 2010). "Young Muslims' Everyday Tactics and Strategies: Resisting Islamophobia, Negotiating Italianness, Becoming Citizens". Journal of Intercultural Studies. 31 (5): 557–572. doi:10.1080/07256868.2010.513087.
  12. ↑ Bull, Anna Cento (December 2010). "Addressing contradictory needs: the Lega Nord and Italian immigration policy". Patterns of Prejudice. 44 (5): 411–431. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2010.527441. S2CID   144384477.
  13. ↑ Romania, Vincenzo; Tozzo, Serena (June 2017). "Terrorism as Ritual Process and Cultural Trauma: a Performative Analysis of ISIS's Attacks in Europe". Italian Sociological Review. 7 (2): 239–261. doi:10.13136/isr.v7i2.177. ProQuest   1914861413.
  14. 1 2 Betz, Hans-Georg; Meret, Susi (July 2009). "Revisiting Lepanto: the political mobilization against Islam in contemporary Western Europe". Patterns of Prejudice. 43 (3–4): 313–334. doi:10.1080/00313220903109235.
  15. ↑ Hafez, Farid; Bayraklı, Enes, eds. (2018). European Islamophobia Report 2017. pp. 14, 357. ISBN   978-975-2459-61-8.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help) citing "«Razza bianca» da difendere: polemica su Attilio Fontana" ['White Race' to be Defended: Controversy Over Attilio Fontana]. Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Redazione Milano. 15 January 2018.
  16. 1 2 Albertazzi, Daniele; McDonnell, Duncan (November 2010). "The Lega Nord Back in Government". West European Politics. 33 (6): 1318–1340. doi:10.1080/01402382.2010.508911.
  17. ↑ Chadwick, Vince (17 August 2016). "Italian minister: Burkini ban risks provoking terror attacks". POLITICO. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  18. ↑ Giuffrida, Angela (18 February 2024). "Italian town in turmoil after far-right mayor bans Muslim prayers". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  19. ↑ Cherribi, Sam (2017). "The Symbolic World of al Jazeera". Fridays of Rage. pp. 43–74. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199337385.003.0002. ISBN   978-0-19-933738-5.
  20. ↑ "About". Stop Islamophobia. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  21. ↑ Bayrakli, Enes. Hafez, Farid. (2017). European islamophobia report 2016. SETA. ISBN   9789752459007. OCLC   989503990.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[ page needed ]
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