Interfaith marriage in Judaism

Last updated

The Wedding Feast of Samson by Rembrandt, depicting the marriage of Samson and Delilah. Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 146.jpg
The Wedding Feast of Samson by Rembrandt, depicting the marriage of Samson and Delilah.

Interfaith marriage in Judaism (also called mixed marriage or intermarriage) has historically been viewed with strong disapproval by Jewish leaders and remains a contentious issue within the Jewish community. [1] According to Halakha (Jewish law), as derived from the Talmud, marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is both prohibited and considered void under Jewish law. [2] The Haskalah influenced more diverse perspectives on interfaith marriage.

Contents

A 2020 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in the United States reported that 42% of married American Jews respondents had a non-Jewish spouse. Among those who married after 2010, the intermarriage rate was 61%, rising to 72% when excluding Orthodox Jews from the data. [3]

In the Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible contains numerous accounts of interethnic marriages. Prominent figures, such as such as Abraham, Moses, and David, who are described as taking non-Israelite women as wives or consorts. The books of Ezra-Nehemiah describe widespread intermarriage between Jews and Samaritans and, to a lesser extent, Philistines. Interfaith marriage, however, was widely condemned, as it was believed that such a union could result in the perversion or abandonment of Israelite religion. Since the notion of these interethnic marriages were inextricably tied to the potential mixing of Israelite and foreign religions, the biblical text uses the condition of having "foreign" spouses to illustrate the concerns surrounding interfaith unions. [4] [5]

The Bible contains numerous laws restricting or forbidding interethnic and, by extension, interfaith marriages. Ancient Israelites were prohibited from marrying individuals from the Seven Nations residing within the "Land of Israel". [6] Israelites were permitted to marry foreign female prisoners of war under strict conditions: the women could not be from cities within the Land of Israel, as these might have been inhabited by the forbidden nations. Additionally, the captive woman was to be a virgin; [7] and was not allowed to have any sexual relations with her captor until after she had mourned her absent parents for a full month. If a soldier became tired of her, he was to give her freedom if she asked for it; he was not to sell her or enslave her since this was a marriage under compulsion. [8] [9] [10]

The Torah posits that a Jewish soldier should not marry a captive non-Jewish woman as a wife because the son would rebel against his father; this would later happen to King David and Absalom. [11] [12]

The crisis of the Babylonian exile renewed concerns for maintaining the "purity" of the ethnic Israelite population. Ezra is described as urging his fellow Jews to separate from their "foreign" wives and children. [13] Under his tutelage, intermarriage came to be highly discouraged. [14]

Later laws and rulings

The Talmud asserts that a marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is prohibited and does not constitute a valid marriage under Jewish law unless the non-Jew converts to Judaism. [2] From biblical times through the Middle Ages, exogamy—marriage outside the Jewish community—was common, as was conversion to Judaism. [15]

In medieval Europe, Christian rulers prohibited marriages between Jews and Christians, often under penalty of death. [16] [17] [18]

Over time, these restrictions were lifted in many regions, and interfaith marriages involving Jews became more frequent. In 1236, Moses ben Jacob of Coucy induced Jews bespoused by such marriages to dissolve them. [19] In 1807, Napoleon's Grand Sanhedrin declared these marriages civilly valid, though not recognized under Jewish law, and stated that they should not be treated as anathema. [20] This stance was extended in 1844 by the Rabbinical Conference of Brunswick to include any adherent of a monotheistic religion, but forbade marriages involving those who lived in states where children of the marriage could not be raised Jewish. [20] The conference was controversial [21] and one member later became an opponent of intermarriage. [22]

Traditional Judaism does not consider marriages between a Jew by birth and a convert as interfaith marriages. [23] [24] Classical rabbinic interpretations maintain that biblical intermarriages, such as that of Joseph and Asenath or Ruth to Boaz, occurred after the non-Israelite partner's conversion. [25] Opinions vary on whether certain groups, such as Canaanites, were eligible for marriage even after conversion; this did not necessarily apply to their children. [26] The Shulchan Aruch and its commentaries bring various opinions as to whether intermarriage is a Torah prohibition and when the prohibition is rabbinic. [27]

Foundlings—children abandoned without identifiable parents—were generally classified as non-Jews concerning intermarriage if found in areas with at least one non-Jewish resident. This contrasted with other areas of Jewish law that classified foundlings as Jewish if the majority of the people were Jewish in the area in which they were found. [28] If a child's mother was known, but not the father, the child was treated as a foundling, unless the mother claimed that the child was an Israelite. [29] [30] [31]

Marriages between Jews and "German-blooded" people were banned in Nazi Germany under the Nuremberg Laws. [32]

Modern attitudes

The Talmud and subsequent classical sources of Jewish law state that the institution of Jewish marriage, kiddushin, can only be effected between Jews.

A 2013 Pew Research Center study found that children of intermarriages were more likely to intermarry themselves and to identify as religiously unaffiliated. Younger generations of intermarried families showed a higher rate of Jewish identification compared to older generations. The study noted that the long-term effects of intermarriage on Jewish identity remain uncertain. [33]

Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism adheres strictly to historic Jewish attitudes to intermarriage, refusing to accept intermarriages as valid or legitimate, along with strictly forbidding sexual intercourse with a member of a different faith. Orthodox rabbis do not officiate at interfaith weddings and generally avoid facilitating them, also try to avoid assisting them in other ways. Secular intermarriage is seen as apostasy, and intermarried individuals are effectively cut off from most Orthodox communities.[ citation needed ] Outreach efforts by some groups, such as Chabad [34] and Modern Orthodox Jews,[ citation needed ] do reach out to intermarried Jews, particularly target intermarried Jewish women, since Orthodox law considers the children of Jewish women to be Jewish regardless of the father's status. [35] Orthodox teachings view marriage between a Jewish man and woman as a reunion of two halves of the same soul, making relationships with non-Jews a disgrace. [36] Some Orthodox families observe shiva (mourning rites) for relatives who marry outside the faith, symbolically mourning the potential loss of future generations who may not be raised as Jewish. [37] Intermarriage is sometimes referred to in Orthodox circles as the "Silent Holocaust."

Masorti Judaism

Masorti Judaism does not sanction or recognize the Jewish legal validity of intermarriage but encourages the inclusion of non-Jewish spouses within Jewish families in hopes of fostering eventual conversion. The Rabbinical Assembly's Standards of Rabbinic Practice prohibit Conservative rabbis from officiating at intermarriages and, until 2018, also forbade them from attending such ceremonies. [38] In 1995 the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism published the following statement on intermarriage:

In the past, intermarriage... was viewed as an act of rebellion, a rejection of Judaism. Jews who intermarried were essentially excommunicated. But now, intermarriage is often the result of living in an open society... If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and by that retain a measure of influence in their lives, Jewishly and otherwise. Life consists of constant growth and our adult children may yet reach a stage when Judaism has new meaning for them. However, the marriage between a Jew and non-Jew is not a celebration for the Jewish community..... [39]

Progressive Judaism

In the United States, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not regard Jewish law as binding.

A 1985 survey found that over 87% of Reconstructionist rabbis were willing to officiate at interfaith marriages. [40] In 2015, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College became the first Jewish seminary to allow rabbis in interfaith relationships. [41]

The Central Conference of American Rabbis consistently opposed intermarriage until the 1980s. [42] [43] [44] By 2003, at least 50% of Reform rabbis were willing to perform interfaith ceremonies. [45] Some Reform congregations, including New York City’s Central Synagogue, conduct interfaith marriages to promote Jewish continuity, with the aim of encouraging non-Jewish spouses to convert. [46]

Humanistic Judaism considers intermarriage a "positive consequence of a free and open society". The Society for Humanistic Judaism advocates welcoming intermarried families as an opportunity to welcome non-Jews into the Jewish community.. [47]

Prevalence

2013 Pew Research poll

A 2013 Pew Research poll found that 58% of Jewish marriages in the United States were interfaith, with significant variation by denomination. Among Orthodox Jews, 2% of marriages were interfaith, compared to 27% among Conservative Jews, 50% among Reform Jews, and 69% among non-denominational Jews.

The study also noted differences in interfaith marriage rates based on religious identity. Among religiously observant Jews, 36% were intermarried, while the rate was significantly higher at 79% among atheist Jews.

Intermarriage rates were found to have remained consistent since 2000. Before 1970, 17% of Jewish marriages were interfaith. [48]

Definitions of interfaith marriage

Different Jewish movements hold distinct views on who is considered Jewish, influencing their definitions of interfaith marriage. Orthodox Judaism maintains that Jewish status is determined matrilineally and does not recognize individuals as Jewish if their mother is not Jewish or if their conversion did not adhere to classical Jewish law. Masorti Judaism also rejects patrilineal descent, though some Conservative rabbis may accept Reform conversions even if they do not meet traditional halachic criteria. Reform Judaism recognizes patrilineal descent if the child is raised in a Jewish context.

In certain cases, a Jew may marry a non-Jew who believes in God as understood by Judaism and rejects other theological frameworks. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as Noahides by the Jewish community. Rabbi Steven Greenberg has suggested that in such instances, the non-Jewish partner could be viewed as a ger toshav.[ citation needed ]

Impact and consequences

In the early 19th century, intermarriage among Jews was extremely rare in many less modernized regions. For example, in Algeria, fewer than 0.1% of Jews practiced exogamy. [49] By the early 20th century, intermarriage rates remained low in many Germanic regions of Central Europe, [50] where about 5% of Jews married non-Jews. [51] [52] [53] However, in Berlin during the same period, the rate was notably higher at 18%, [54] and nearly half of all Jews in Australia intermarried. [55]

In recent decades, intermarriage rates have risen significantly in many countries. The National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01 reported that 47% of American Jews who married between 1996 and 2001 married non-Jews. [56] The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey recorded an intermarriage rate of 52% among American Jews. [57] This trend has led to widespread concern among some Jewish leaders, who view the increasing rates of intermarriage as a potential threat to the long-term survival of Judaism. [58] As early as the mid-19th century, senior Jewish figures denounced intermarriage as a danger to Jewish continuity. [59]

In the United States, birth rates among Jews have declined, with the average Jewish adult having 1.5 children as of 2021. [60] Some religious conservatives metaphorically describe intermarriage as a "silent holocaust." In contrast, many liberal Jews view interfaith marriage as an enriching aspect of multicultural society. There has been a growing effort to engage the descendants of intermarried parents. Each Jewish denomination focuses outreach on those it considers Jewish,[ citation needed ] while secular and non-denominational organizations aim to reconnect all descendants of intermarriage to the Jewish community. [61] [62]

In some cases, children of interfaith marriages were raised in the non-Jewish parent's religion while maintaining a sense of Jewish ethnic identity. One notable example is Barry Goldwater, who had a Jewish father and an Episcopalian mother. Goldwater was a lifelong Episcopalian who acknowledged his Jewish ancestry, though he rarely identified as Jewish. [63]

Christian–Jewish relations

Many Christian churches accept and may actively promote the conversion of Jews. Messianic Jewish organizations, including Jews for Jesus, actively seek to encourage such conversions. [64] [65] Some Christian denominations reject efforts to convert Jews, with many embracing dual-covenant theology. [66] [67] [68]

Jewish counter-missionary and anti-missionary organizations, including Outreach Judaism, work to discourage Jews from converting to Christianity. Conversely, Messianic Jewish organizations, including Jews for Jesus, actively seek to encourage such conversions, often framing them as a fulfillment of Jewish identity.

Opposition to mixed marriages in Israel

Interfaith relationships and marriages are a contentious issue in the State of Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories, with strong opposition among Israeli Jews, particularly to relationships between Jewish women and Muslim men. A 2007 survey found that over half of Israeli Jews equated intermarriage with "national treason."[ citation needed ]

In 2005, Bentzi Gopstein founded the anti-miscegenation organisation Lehava. [69] [70] Lehava members have patrolled the Israeli settlement of Pisgat Ze'ev in East Jerusalem to discourage Jewish women from dating Palestinian men. [71] Lehava’s leader, Gopstein, was indicted in November 2019 on charges of incitement to terrorism, violence, and racism. [72]

Municipalities in Israel have also taken measures to prevent interfaith relationships. In Petah Tikva, officials established a telephone hotline for individuals to report Jewish women dating Palestinian men and offered psychological counseling for these women. Similarly, the city of Kiryat Gat implemented school programs warning Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men. [73] [74]

Organizations such as Chemla and Yad L'Achim actively oppose interfaith marriages and engage in efforts to stop Jewish women from being in relationships with Palestinians. [75] [76]

Interfaith marriages are extremely rare in Israel, comprising approximately 2% of the population. A Pew Research Center study conducted in 2014-2015 revealed that 97% of Israeli Jews reported being uncomfortable with the idea of their child marrying a Muslim, while 89% expressed similar discomfort with their child marrying a Christian. [77]

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jews as the chosen people</span> Religious belief in a unique divine relationship

In Judaism, the concept of the Jews as chosen people is the belief that the Jews as a subset, via partial descent from the ancient Israelites, are also chosen people, i.e. selected to be in a covenant with God. Israelites being properly the chosen people of God is found directly in the Book of Deuteronomy 7:6 as the verb baḥar (בָּחַר), and is alluded to elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible using other terms such as "holy people" as goy or gentile, Book of Exodus 19:6. Much is written about these topics in rabbinic literature. The three largest Jewish denominations—Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism—maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose. Sometimes this choice is seen by believers as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. Isaiah and Jeremiah viewed God's loving choice of Israel as a means to teaching monotheism, combatting idolatry, curbing human arrogance, ending violence, lust, greed, extreme chauvinism and warfare, and ushering in a new society.

The subject of homosexuality and Judaism dates back to the Torah. The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) is traditionally regarded as classifying sexual intercourse between males as a to'eivah that can be subject to capital punishment by the current Sanhedrin under halakha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish views on marriage</span>

Marriage in Judaism is the documentation of a contract between a Jewish man and a Jewish woman. Because marriage under Jewish law is essentially a private contractual agreement between a man and a woman, it does not require the presence of a rabbi or any other religious official. It is common, however, for rabbis to officiate and there are rules governing the process of betrothal and consecration.

A rabbi is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as semikha—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic and Talmudic eras, when learned teachers assembled to codify Judaism's written and oral laws. The title "rabbi" was first used in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister, hence the title "pulpit rabbis", and in 19th-century Germany and the United States rabbinic activities including sermons, pastoral counseling, and representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance.

The relationships between the various denominations of Judaism are complex and include a range of trends from the conciliatory and welcoming to hostile and antagonistic.

Jewish religious movements, sometimes called "denominations", include diverse groups within Judaism which have developed among Jews from ancient times. Today in the west, the most prominent divisions are between traditionalist Orthodox movements and modernist movements such as Reform Judaism originating in late 18th century Europe, Conservative originating in 19th century Europe, and other smaller ones, including the Reconstructionist and Renewal movements which emerged later in the 20th century in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conversion to Judaism</span> Religious conversion of non-Jews

Conversion to Judaism is the process by which non-Jews adopt the Jewish religion and become members of the Jewish ethnoreligious community. It thus resembles both conversion to other religions and naturalization. The procedure and requirements for conversion depend on the sponsoring denomination. Furthermore, a conversion done in accordance with one Jewish denomination is not a guarantee of recognition by another denomination. Normally, though not always, the conversions performed by more stringent denominations are recognized by less stringent ones, but not the other way around. A formal conversion is also sometimes undertaken by individuals whose Jewish ancestry is questioned or uncertain, even if they were raised Jewish, but may not actually be considered Jews according to traditional Jewish law.

"Who is a Jew?" is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural, ethnic, religious, political, genealogical, and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law (halakha), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion.

Interfaith marriage, sometimes called interreligious marriage or "mixed marriage", is marriage between spouses professing different religions. Although interfaith marriages are often established as civil marriages, in some instances they may be established as a religious marriage. This depends on religious doctrine of each of the two parties' religions; some prohibit interfaith marriage, and among others there are varying degrees of permissibility.

Conservative Judaism views halakha as normative and binding. The Conservative movement applies Jewish law to the full range of Jewish beliefs and practices, including thrice-daily prayer, Shabbat and holidays, marital relations and family purity, conversion, dietary laws (kashrut), and Jewish medical ethics. Institutionally, the Conservative movement rules on Jewish law both through centralized decisions, primarily by the Rabbinical Assembly and its Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, and through congregational rabbis at the local level. Conservative authorities produced voluminous Responsa literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish outreach</span> Proselytism performed by observant Jews to fellow yet non-observant people of Jewish descent

Jewish outreach is a term sometimes used to translate the Hebrew word kiruv or keruv. Normative Judaism forbids seeking converts to Judaism from other religions, although all denominations do accept those who follow through their conversion with a sincere commitment. Outreach efforts are instead directed at Jews who have "gone astray", or who have been born Jewish in a non-observant family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marriage in Israel</span> Legal status of marriages and divorces in the state of Israel

In Israel, marriage can be performed only under the auspices of the religious community to which couples belong, and inter-faith marriages performed within the country are not legally recognized. However, marriages performed abroad or remotely via videoconference must be registered by the government. Matrimonial law is based on the millet or confessional community system which had been employed in the Ottoman Empire, including what is now Israel, was not modified during the British Mandate of the region, and remains in force in the State of Israel.

Reform Judaism Outreach refers to the organizational and educational efforts by the Union for Reform Judaism and the Reform Movement as a whole to draw into Jewish life the non-Jewish spouses of interfaith families and seekers who are looking for a new religious home in Judaism.

The Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism, also known as the LCCJ, is a council made up of members of the various arms of the Conservative movement, a formal movement within the Jewish denomination of Conservative Judaism.

In modern Rabbinic Judaism, the traditional method of determining Jewishness relies on tracing one's maternal line. According to halakha, the recognition of someone as fully Jewish requires them to have been born to a Jewish mother. A person who is born to a non-Jewish mother and a Jewish father is regarded as Zera Yisrael and will only be accepted as ethnically Jewish and not as religiously Jewish. Thus, being Jewish through the paternal line typically necessitates conversion to Judaism to validate one's identity as a Jew in the fullest sense.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) affirming denominations in Judaism are Jewish religious groups that welcome LGBTQ members and do not consider homosexuality to be a sin. They include both entire Jewish denominations, as well as individual synagogues. Some are composed mainly of non-LGBT members and also have specific programs to welcome LGBT people, while others are composed mainly of LGBT members.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yuval Cherlow</span> Israeli Modern Orthodox rabbi

Yuval Cherlow is a Modern Orthodox rabbi and posek. He is Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Hesder Amit Orot Shaul in Tel Aviv, Israel. Cherlow was one of the founders of Tzohar, an organization of religious Zionist Orthodox rabbis in Israel.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Judaism:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kiddushin (Talmud)</span> Tractate in Mishnah and Talmud

Kiddushin is a masekhet or tractate of the Mishnah and the Talmud, and is part of the order of Nashim. The content of the tractate primarily deals with the legal provisions related to halakhic engagement and marriage.

References

  1. ↑ Mehta, Samira (28 May 2024). "For American Jews, interfaith weddings are a new normal – and creatively weave both traditions together". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
  2. 1 2 Kiddushin 68b
  3. ↑ "Jewish Americans In 2020: Marriage, families and children". Pew Research Center. 11 May 2021.
  4. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain : Legends of the Jews pp.100-101
  5. ↑ Response of Rabbi Eliezer Zalmanov 08/19/2022
  6. ↑ Deuteronomy 20:15-17; Joshua 9:1-2; Joshua 24:12
  7. ↑ Numbers:31 17-18; Judges 21:9-21
  8. ↑ Deuteronomy 21:10-14
  9. ↑ Woman captured in War Aish Torah
  10. ↑ The Torah position on Rape
  11. ↑ Woman captured in war
  12. ↑ Ask the Rabbi query - Response of Rabbi Eliezer Zalmanov for Chabad.org 22 August 2022
  13. ↑ Intermarriage Jewish Encyclopedia
  14. ↑ Ezra Chapters 9 and 10
  15. ↑ Birenbaum-Carmeli, D.; Inhorn, M.C. (2009). Assisting Reproduction, Testing Genes: Global Encounters with the New Biotechnologies. Fertility, Reproduction and Sexuality: Social and Cultural Perspectives. Berghahn Books. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-84545-941-3 . Retrieved 8 July 2023. Going back to biblical times and into the second century BCE through late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Jewish collectivity seemed rather amenable to exogamy and conversion. This has changed in later periods
  16. ↑ Codex Theodosianus, 16:8, 6
  17. ↑ Heinrich Grätz, Geschichte der Juden (=History of the Jews) 4:363; 5:359; 7;27
  18. ↑ Leopold Löw, Gesammelte Werke, 2:176
  19. ↑ Moses of Coucy, Sefer Mitzvot ha-Gadol, 112
  20. 1 2 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Intermarriage". The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
  21. ↑ Jewish Encyclopedia, "Conferences, Rabbinical"
  22. ↑ Ludwig Philippson, Israelitische Religionslehre (1865), 3:350
  23. ↑ Berakhot 28a
  24. ↑ Rabbi Yosef Karo, Shulchan Aruch III:4:10
  25. ↑ Genesis Rabbah, 65
  26. ↑ Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Sanctity, Laws of Prohibited Relations, 12:22 and Maggid Mashnah ad. loc.
  27. ↑ III:16:2
  28. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Foundling". The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
  29. ↑ Ketubot 13a
  30. ↑ Kiddushin 74a
  31. ↑ Ketubot (Palestinian Talmud only) 1:9
  32. ↑ Strnad, Maximilian (2015). "The Fortune of Survival – Intermarried German Jews in the Dying Breath of the 'Thousand-Year Reich'". Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust. 29 (3): 173–196. doi:10.1080/23256249.2015.1082806. S2CID   163076737.
  33. ↑ "What happens when Jews intermarry?". 12 November 2013.
  34. ↑ "New Chabad Representatives Broach Intermarriage Directly". 30 July 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
  35. ↑ In laws and Shabbat Law
  36. ↑ On Intermarriage Rabbi Eliezer Shemtov
  37. ↑ Response of Rabbi Eliezer Zalmanov 08/01/2019
  38. ↑ Rabbinical-Assembly. "Update to Standards of Practice". The Rabbinical Assembly. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
  39. ↑ Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism, Statement on Intermarriage, Adopted on 7 March 1995
  40. ↑ Survey of the American Rabbinate, The Jewish Outreach Institute, Archived 3 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 6 May 2009)
  41. ↑ Lisa Hostein (1 October 2015). "Reconstructionists give green light to intermarried rabbinical students". J. weekly. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  42. ↑ Reform Judaism and Mixed Marriage Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine CCAR Responsa (Vol. XC, 1980, pp. 86–102), American Reform Responsa 146.
  43. ↑ Rabbi Officiating at a Mixed Marriage Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine CCAR Responsa (Vol. XCII, 1982, pp. 213–215), American Reform Responsa 149.
  44. ↑ Prayer for Couple Contemplating Intermarriage Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine CCAR Responsa (1979), American Reform Responsa 147.
  45. ↑ Summary of Rabbinic Center for Research and Counseling 2003 Survey, Irwin H. Fishbein, Rabbi, D. Min., Rabbinic Center for Research and Counseling, (retrieved 6 May 2009)
  46. ↑ Ettinger, Yair (14 January 2019). "'Judaism Shouldn't Have to Stay Alive Only Because Jews Are Afraid of Everything Else'". Haaretz.
  47. ↑ "13 Tough Questions". Shj.org. 13 May 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  48. ↑ "Chapter 2: Intermarriage and Other Demographics". Pew Research Center. 1 October 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
  49. ↑ Ricoux, Demography of Algeria, Paris, 1860, p. 71
  50. ↑ Prussia, Bavaria, Austria, Bohemia, etc.
  51. ↑ Census for Prussian Statistics, 1902, p. 216
  52. ↑ Census of the Baverian Kingdom, Statistics Bureaux, 1900, p. 259
  53. ↑ Statebook of Austria 8:283, Vienna, 1900
  54. ↑ Statistics Yearbook, 1902, p. 61
  55. ↑ specifically, 44% in New South Wales; Census of New South Wales, 1901, Bulletin No. 14
  56. ↑ "American Jewry Today - Jewish Population Statistics - 2000 NJPS National Jewish Population Survey". Judaism.about.com. 11 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
  57. ↑ "National Jewish Population Survey: 1990 - My Jewish Learning". Smyjewishlearning.atypica.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
  58. ↑ What Is Wrong with Intermarriage? Chabad.org
  59. ↑ Geiger and Aub,Leipsic Synod 1869; Referate über die der Ersten Synode Gestellten Anträge p. 193
  60. ↑ Mitchell, Travis (11 May 2021). "10. Jewish demographics". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 16 November 2024.
  61. ↑ "Beta-Gershom.org".
  62. ↑ "Jewish Outreach Institute". joi.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  63. ↑ Clymer, Adam (29 May 1998). "Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2013.
  64. ↑ David Cho, "Conversion Outreach Plan Stirs Outrage: Jews for Jesus Trains 600 for Street Work", The Washington Post, 17 August 2004; Page B01 full text [ dead link ]
  65. ↑ "Aishdas Torahnet". Aishdas.org. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
  66. ↑ Ecumenical Considerations on Jewish-Christian Dialogue (World Council of Churches)
  67. ↑ Brockway, Allan R. "Should Christians Attempt to Evangelize Jews?". abrock.com. Archived from the original on 24 January 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
  68. ↑ Policies of mainline and liberal Christians towards proselytizing Jews Archived 12 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine (religioustolerance.org)
  69. ↑ "Israeli press review: Minister calls marriages with non-Jews 'a second Holocaust'". Middle East Eye.
  70. ↑ "Racism in Israel". Open Democracy.
  71. ↑ Freedman, Seth (29 September 2009). "Israel's vile anti-miscegenation squads". The Guardian.
  72. ↑ Sharon, Jeremy (26 November 2019). "Lehava head Bentzi Gopstein indicted for incitement to terror, racism". The Jerusalem Post.
  73. ↑ "'Protecting' Jewish girls from Arabs". The Jerusalem Post . 18 September 2009.
  74. ↑ Cook, Jonathan. "Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs". The National.
  75. ↑ Israel National News Chemla organization: "Jewish women ensnared into marriage with Arabs" 30 November 2023
  76. ↑ Gontarz, Nir (22 December 2018). "The Israeli Charity "Helping" Jewish Women in "Arab Captivity"". Haaretz. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  77. ↑ Pew Research Center (8 March 2016). "11. Intergroup marriage and friendship" . Retrieved 19 July 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.