Evenki people

Last updated
Evenki
Эвэнкил
Flag of Evenks.svg
Evenk family in the early 1900s.jpg
An Evenki family in the early 1900s
Regions with significant populations
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 39,226 [1]
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg China 30,875 [2]
Flag of Mongolia.svg  Mongolia 537 [3]
Languages
Evenki, Yakut, Russian, Chinese
Religion
Shamanism, Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Tibetan Buddhism [4] [5] [6]
Related ethnic groups
Evens, Oroqens, Oroch
ᠧᠸᠧᠩᠺᠢ

Evenki of China

The lands of the Solons (Solonen) near Hailar (Chailar) in the late Qing Empire Stielers Handatlas 1891 62 NE.jpg
The lands of the Solons (Solonen) near Hailar (Chailar) in the late Qing Empire
An Evenki chum made from birch bark, Heilongjiang Evenki tent made by birchbark, Aug 2019.jpg
An Evenki chum made from birch bark, Heilongjiang
Evenki Museum in the Ewenki Autonomous Banner Evenki Museum.jpg
Evenki Museum in the Ewenki Autonomous Banner

At the 2000 census, there were 30,505 Evenki in China, mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans. 88.8% of China's Evenki live in the Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar. The Ewenki Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenki in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province.

The Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji conquered the Evenki in 1640, and executed their leader Bombogor. After the Manchu conquest, the Evenki were incorporated into the Eight Banners.

In 1763, the Qing government moved 500 Solon Evenki and 500 Daur families to the Tacheng and Ghulja areas of Xinjiang, in order to strengthen the empire's western border. Another 1020 Xibe families (some 4000 persons) also came the following year. Since then, however, the Solons of Xinjiang have assimilated into other ethnic groups, and are not identified as such anymore. [14] [15]

The Japanese occupation led to many murders of Evenkis, and Evenki men were conscripted as scouts and rangers by the Japanese secret service in 1942. [16] Some Evenkis fled to Soviet Siberia across the Amur river after murdering a Japanese officer to avoid punishment from the Japanese.

The Evenki of China today tend to be settled pastoralists and farmers. [12]

By county

Map of Evenk-designated autonomous prefectures and counties in China Evenk autonomous prefectures and counties in China.png
Map of Evenk-designated autonomous prefectures and counties in China
County-level distribution of the Evenk

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >0.1% of China's Evenki population.)

Evenki people
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese 鄂温克族
Traditional Chinese 鄂溫克族
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Èwēnkè Zú
Provincial-level administrative divisionPrefecture-level divisionCounty-level divisionEvenki Population% of China's Evenki Population
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Ewenki Autonomous Banner 9,73331.91%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner 5,12616.8%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Oroqen Autonomous Banner 3.15510.34%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Arun Banner 2,1447.03%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Old Barag Banner 1,9066.25%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Zhalantun 1,2013.94%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Hailar District 9713.18%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Nehe 7782.55%
Heilongjiang Heihe Nenjiang 6782.22%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Yakeshi 4051.33%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Genhe 3691.21%
Inner Mongolia AR Hohhot Saihan District 1580.52%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Manzhouli 1410.46%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Meilisi Daur District 1350.44%
Heilongjiang Daxing'anling Jagdaqi 1290.42%
Inner Mongolia AR Hohhot Xincheng District 1280.42%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Fuyu 1110.36%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir Ergun 1100.36%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir New Barag Left Banner 1030.34%
Beijing Municipality Haidian District 680.22%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Jianhua 650.21%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Tiefeng 650.21%
Inner Mongolia AR Hinggan League Ulanhot 600.20%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Gangnan District 590.19%
Heilongjiang Daxing'anling Mohe 550.18%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Hulan Ergi 540.18%
Inner Mongolia AR Hulunbuir New Barag Right Banner 540.18%
Heilongjiang Daxing'anling Huma 520.17%
Inner Mongolia AR Hohhot Huimin District 480.16%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Longjiang 440.14%
Heilongjiang Qiqihar Longsha 360.12%
Inner Mongolia AR Baotou Qingshan 350.11%
Inner Mongolia AR Tongliao Horqin District 350.11%
Inner Mongolia AR Hinggan League Jalaid Banner 340.11%
Inner Mongolia AR Heihe Wudalianchi 320.10%
Other2,2287.33%

Evenki of Ukraine

According to the 2001 census, there were 48 Evenki living in Ukraine. The majority (35) stated that their native language was Russian; four indicated Evenki as their native language, and three that it was Ukrainian. [17]

Traditional life

Traditionally they were a mixture of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers—they relied on their domesticated reindeer for milk and transport and hunted other large game for meat. [18] Today "[t]he Evenki are divided into two large groups ... engaging in different types of economy. These are the hunting and reindeer-breeding Evenki ... and the horse and cattle pastoral Evenki as well as some farming Evenki". [19] The Evenki lived mostly in taiga, or boreal forest. They lived in conical tents made from birch bark or reindeer skin tied to birch poles. When they moved camp, the Evenki would leave these frameworks and carry only the more portable coverings. During winter, the hunting season, most camps consisted of one or two tents while spring encampments had up to 10 households [20]

Their skill at riding their domesticated reindeer allowed the Evenki to "colonize vast areas of the eastern taiga which had previously been impenetrable" [21] The Evenki used a saddle unique to their culture, placed on the shoulders of the reindeer to lessen the strain on the animal, and used a stick rather than stirrups to balance. [22] Evenki did not develop reindeer sledges until comparatively recent times [23] They instead used their reindeer as pack animals and often traversed great distances on foot, using snowshoes or skis. [24] The Evenki people did hunt and eat wild reindeer, but not their domesticated reindeer, which they kept for milk. [25]

Large herds of reindeer were very uncommon. Most Evenki had around 25 head of reindeer, because they were generally bred for transportation. Unlike in several other neighboring tribes Evenki reindeer-breeding did not include "herding of reindeer by dogs nor any other specific features". [26] Very early in the spring season, winter camps broke up and moved to places suitable for calving. Several households pastured their animals together throughout the summer, being careful to keep "[s]pecial areas ... fenced off ... to guard the newborn calves against being trampled on in a large herd" [27]

Clothing

Evenki in traditional clothing Turizm096.png
Evenki in traditional clothing

The Evenki wore a characteristic garb "adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of the Central Siberia and to a life of mobility ... they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh" (49). They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery (50). The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements: a loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths [28] Facial tattooing was also very common.

Hunting

An 1862 painting depicting Evenki hunting Evenks1862.jpg
An 1862 painting depicting Evenki hunting

The traditional Evenki economy was a mix of pastoralism (horses or reindeer), fishing, and hunting. The Evenki who lived near the Okhotsk Sea hunted seal, but for most of the taiga-dwellers, elk, wild reindeer, and fowl were the most important game animals. Other animals included "roe deer, bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, Siberian marmot, fox, and sable" [29] Trapping did not become important until the imposition of the fur tax by the tsarist government. Before they acquired guns in the 18th century, Evenki used steel bows and arrows. Along with their main hunting implements, hunters always carried a "pike"—"which was a large knife on a long handle used instead of an axe when passing through thick taiga, or as a spear when hunting bear". [30] The Evenki have deep respect for animals and all elements of nature: "It is forbidden to torment an animal, bird, or insect, and a wounded animal must be finished off immediately. It is forbidden to spill the blood of a killed animal or defile it. It is forbidden to kill animals or birds that were saved from pursuit by predators or came to a person for help in a natural disaster." [31]

Religion

Costume of an Evenki shaman in Krasnoyarsk Evenki shaman.jpg
Costume of an Evenki shaman in Krasnoyarsk

Prior to contact with the Russians, the belief system of the Evenki was animistic. Many have adopted Tibetan Buddhism. [4] [5] [6]

The Evenki, like most nomadic, pastoral, and subsistence agrarian peoples, spend most of their lives in very close contact with nature. Because of this, they develop what A. A. Sirina calls an "ecological ethic". By this she means "a system of responsibility of people to nature and her spirit masters, and of nature to people"(9). Sirina interviewed many Evenki who until very recently spent much of their time as reindeer herders in the taiga, just like their ancestors. The Evenki people also spoke along the same lines: their respect for nature and their belief that nature is a living being.

This idea, "[t]he embodiment, animation, and personification of nature—what is still called the animistic worldview—is the key component of the traditional worldview of hunter-gatherers" [32] Although most of the Evenkis have been "sedentarized"—that is, made to live in settled communities instead of following their traditional nomadic way of life [33] —"[m]any scholars think that the worldview characteristic of hunter-gatherer societies is preserved, even if they make the transition to new economic models. [34]

Although nominally Christianized in the 18th century, the Evenki people maintain many of their historical beliefs—especially shamanism [35] The Christian traditions were "confined to the formal performance of Orthodox rites which were usually timed for the arrival of the priest in the taiga" [36]

The religious beliefs and practices of the Evenki are of great historical interest since they retain some archaic forms of belief. Among the most ancient ideas are spiritualization and personification of all natural phenomena, belief in an upper, middle, and lower world, belief in the soul (omi) and certain totemistic concepts. There were also various magical rituals associated with hunting and guarding herds. Later on, these rituals were conducted by shamans. Shamanism brought about the development of the views of spirit-masters [37]

There are few sources on the shamanism of the Evenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted by Richard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Evenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name). [38] She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in the Evenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim were evident. She hid her prize possession—an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among the Mongols and Dauer peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online. [39]

Olga Kudrina (c. 1890–1944) was a shaman among the Reindeer Evenki of northern Inner Mongolia along the Amur River's Great Bend (today under the jurisdiction of Genhe, Hulunbuir). [40]

Genetics

40 percent of Evenki men carry haplogroup C-M217. Their second most common Y-DNA haplogroup is N (34 %). 18 percent belong to its subgroup N1b-P43 and 16 percent belong to subgroup N1c. Other paternal haplogroups found among them are R1a (14 %), R1b (6 %), F (4 %) and I (2 %). [41]

Notable Evenki

See also

Bibliography

In literature

  • Chi, Zijian (2013). 《额尔古纳河右岸》[The Last Quarter of the Moon]. Translated by Humes, Bruce. Harvill Secker.. [45]
  • The Moose of Ewenki《鄂温克的驼鹿》, picture book written by Gerelchimeg Blackcrane (格日勒其木格·黑鹤), illustrated by Jiu Er (九儿), translated by Helen Mixter . (Greystone Kids, 2019) [46]

Notes

  1. ↑ The Chinese government uses the English spelling Ewenki.

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References

  1. ↑ Ethnic groups in Russia Archived 2021-12-23 at the Wayback Machine , 2010 census, Rosstat. Retrieved 15 February 2012 (in Russian)
  2. 1 2 "Evenk Archives – Intercontinental Cry". Intercontinental Cry. Archived from the original on 2018-01-05. Retrieved 2017-06-30.
  3. 1 2 "2015 POPULATION AND HOUSING BY-CENSUS OF MONGOLIA: NATIONAL REPORT". National Statistics Office of Mongolia. 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
  4. 1 2 "Ewenki, Solon" (PDF). Asiaharvest.org. Retrieved 17 August 2018.[ permanent dead link ]
  5. 1 2 "Ewenki, Tungus" (PDF). Asiaharvest.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  6. 1 2 Шубин А. Ц. Краткий очерк этнической истории эвенков Забайкалья (XVIII-XX век). Улан-Удэ: Бурят. кн. изд-во, 1973. С. 64, 65 (in Russian)
  7. ↑ Vasilevich (623)
  8. ↑ (Vasilevich, 624)
  9. ↑ (Vasilevich, 625)
  10. ↑ Klokov, K.B., Khrushchev, S.A. (2010). Demographic dynamics of the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the Russian North, 1897–2002. Sibirica, 9, 41–65
  11. ↑ Vakhtin, N. (1992). Native peoples of the Russian Far North. London
  12. 1 2 Winston, Robert, ed. (2004). Human: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: Dorling Kindersley. p. 428. ISBN   0-7566-0520-2.
  13. ↑ "Национальный состав населения". Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  14. ↑ Herold J. Wiens "Change in the Ethnography and Land Use of the Ili Valley and Region, Chinese Turkestan", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Dec., 1969), pp. 753–775 (JSTOR access required)
  15. ↑ Tianshannet / Окно в Синьцзян / Народности, не относящиеся к тюркской группе Tianshannet Archived 2009-04-30 at the Wayback Machine (Window to Xinjiang / Non-Turkic peoples) (in Russian)
  16. ↑ Kolås, Åshild; Xie, Yuanyuan, eds. (2005). Reclaiming the Forest: The Ewenki Reindeer Herders of Aoluguya. Berghahn Books. p. 2. ISBN   1-78238-631-9.
  17. ↑ State statistics committee of Ukraine – National composition of population, 2001 census (Ukrainian)
  18. ↑ (Vasilevich, 620-1)
  19. ↑ (620)
  20. ↑ (Vasilevich, 637).
  21. ↑ (Vitebsky, 31).
  22. ↑ (31–32)
  23. ↑ (32).
  24. ↑ (Vasilevich, 627)
  25. ↑ (Forsyth, 49–50).
  26. ↑ (Vasilevich, 629)
  27. ↑ (629).
  28. ↑ (Vasilevich, 641).
  29. ↑ (Vasilevich, 626).
  30. ↑ (626)
  31. ↑ (Sirina, 24).
  32. ↑ (Sirina, 13).
  33. ↑ (Fondahl, 5)
  34. ↑ (Sirina, 30, quoting Barnard 1998, Lee 1999, Peterson 1999)
  35. ↑ (Vasilevich, 624).
  36. ↑ (647).
  37. ↑ (Vasilevich 647).
  38. ↑ Richard Noll and Kun Shi, A Solon Evenki shaman and her Abgaldi Shaman mask. Shaman, 2007, 15 (1–2):167–174
  39. ↑ Noll, Richard. ""A Solon Ewenki shaman and her Abagaldai mask," Shaman (2007), 15 (1–2)". Academia.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  40. ↑ Heyne, F. Georg (2007), "Notes on Blood Revenge among the Reindeer Evenki of Manchuria" (PDF), Asian Folklore Studies, 66 (1/2): 165–178, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-20, retrieved 2014-11-12
  41. ↑ Tambets, Kristiina; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Hudjashov, Georgi; Ilumäe, Anne-Mai; Rootsi, Siiri; Honkola, Terhi; Vesakoski, Outi; Atkinson, Quentin; Skoglund, Pontus; Kushniarevich, Alena; Litvinov, Sergey; Reidla, Maere; Metspalu, Ene; Saag, Lehti; Rantanen, Timo (2018). "Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations". Genome Biology. 19 (1): 139. doi: 10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 . ISSN   1474-760X. PMC   6151024 . PMID   30241495.
  42. ↑ "Evenki". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  43. ↑ "A Brief Exploration of the Altaic Hypothesis". Linguistics.byu.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  44. ↑ "UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention: UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". 22 February 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-02-22. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  45. ↑ Humes, Bruce (2018-02-01). "Chi Zijian's "Last Quarter of the Moon": Guide to Related Links". Fei Piao – Transitioning from China to Africa. Archived from the original on 2019-08-28. Retrieved 2019-08-28.
  46. ↑ anguche (2019-08-27). "85. The Moose of Ewenki". Chinese books for young readers. Retrieved 2019-08-28.
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