Brown planthopper

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Nilaparvata lugens
Nilaparvata lugens from CSIRO.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Delphacidae
Subfamily: Delphacinae
Tribe: Delphacini
Genus: Nilaparvata
Species:
N. lugens
Binomial name
Nilaparvata lugens
(Stål, 1854)

The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) is a planthopper species that feeds on rice plants (Oryza sativa L.). These insects are among the most important pests of rice, which is the major staple crop for about half the world's population. [1] They damage rice directly through feeding and also by transmitting two viruses, rice ragged stunt virus and rice grassy stunt virus. Up to 60% yield loss is common in susceptible rice cultivars attacked by the insect. The BPH is distributed throughout Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, [2] Indonesia, Japan, North and South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Their alternative host plant other than rice is Leersia hexandra .

Biology

The brown planthopper is dimorphic, with fully winged 'macropterous' and truncate-winged 'brachypterous' forms. The macropterous forms are potentially migrants and are responsible for colonizing new fields. They migrate on the wind, with East Asian populations undergoing closed circuit journeys between Indochina and the Far East. Malay Archipelago and South Asia populations, on the other hand, make one-way migrations to Indochina. [3] After settling on rice plants, they produce the next generation, where most of the female insects develop as brachypters and males as macropters. Adults usually mate on the day of emergence, and the females start laying eggs from the day following mating. Brachypterous females lay 300 to 350 eggs, whereas macropterous females lay fewer eggs. The eggs are thrust in a straight line generally along the mid-region of the leaf sheath. Eggs hatch in about six to nine days. The newly hatched nymphs are cottony white, and turn purple brown within an hour. They feed on plant sap. They pass through five instars before becoming adults.

Damage

BPH [4] infest the rice crop at all stages of plant growth. Due to feeding by both the nymphs and adults at the base of the tillers, plants turn yellow and dry up rapidly. During the early infestation stage, round yellow patches appear, which soon become brownish due to the drying up of the plants. This condition is called 'hopper burn'. Temperature is a critical factor that affects the life activities of this insect. The hatchability and survival rate are the highest around 25 °C. The eggs are highly sensitive to desiccation and soon shrivel when the host plant starts wilting. BPH population growth is maximal in a temperature range from 28 to 30 °C[ citation needed ].

Predators

Video monitoring of various predators in the presence of dead or live (immobilized or not) brown planthoppers

Predators of this insect include the spiders Pardosa pseudoannulata and Araneus inustus. [5] In some cases, BPHs lay eggs in the rice seed beds (also known as rice nurseries) shortly before transplanting, so enter the field in this manner. [6]

Differential mortality of predators and hoppers does not appear to be the only factor for insecticide-induced resurgence. [7] Some insecticides evidently increase the protein content of BPH male accessory glands, and thereby increase planthopper fecundity. [8] [9] Some insecticides increase the amount of amino acids and sucrose available in the phloem of rice plants, and thereby increase BPH survival. [10]

Management and control

Excessive use of urea as nitrogenous fertilizer and insecticides can lead to outbreaks by increasing the fecundity of the brown planthopper, and by reducing populations of natural enemies. [11] [12] [13] It follows that the primary integrated pest management (IPM) approach includes restricting the inappropriate and excessive use of these inputs. For example in 2011, the Thai government announced an initiative to respond to a major brown planthoppers outbreak by restricting outbreak-causing insecticides including abamectin and cypermethrin; the decision was supported by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). [14] IRRI also outlined recommendations foe an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) action plan to limit planthopper outbreaks. [15] In December 2011, the IRRI held a conference in Vietnam to address the threats of insecticide misuse and explore options for mitigation. [16]

Rice varieties with resistance to BPH, e.g. IR64, are important for preventing outbreaks. [17] [18] [19] However, in areas with low insecticide use, high levels of BPH resistance are not usually necessary. [20] Chemical mutagenesis can significantly increase or decrease BPH resistance levels of rice. [21] Some chemical insecticides, e.g. imidacloprid, can affect the gene expression of rice and thereby increase susceptibility to BPH. [22]

In an attempt to make BPH control more species-specific, researchers are trying to develop methods of turning off specific BPH genes for digestion-, defense- and xenobiotic metabolism. Many novel genes for these functions have been detected in tissue from BPH intestines. [23]

Some plant lectins are antifeedants to BPH and if properly formulated may have the potential to protect rice from BPH. [24] [25] [26] [27]

Impact of climate change

Research indicates that BPH nymphs are already living at the upper limits of tolerable temperatures. This suggests that climate warming in tropical regions with occasional extremely high temperatures would limit the survival and distribution of BPH. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rice</span> Cereal (Oryza sativa)

Rice is a cereal grain, and in its domesticated form is the staple food for over half of the world's human population, particularly in Asia and Africa, due to the vast amount of soil that is able to grow rice. Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or, much less commonly, O. glaberrima. Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago, while African rice was domesticated in Africa some 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane, maize, and wheat. Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects, rodents, and birds, as well as by weeds, and by diseases such as rice blast. Traditional polycultures such as rice-duck farming, and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proteomics</span> Large-scale study of proteins

Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions such as the formation of structural fibers of muscle tissue, enzymatic digestion of food, or synthesis and replication of DNA. In addition, other kinds of proteins include antibodies that protect an organism from infection, and hormones that send important signals throughout the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insecticide</span> Pesticide used against insects

Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrated pest management</span> Approach for economic control of pests

Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates both chemical and non-chemical practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level (EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization defines IPM as "the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms." Entomologists and ecologists have urged the adoption of IPM pest control since the 1970s. IPM allows for safer pest control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leafhopper</span> Family of insects

Leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, shrubs, or trees. Their hind legs are modified for jumping, and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones. They undergo a partial metamorphosis, and have various host associations, varying from very generalized to very specific. Some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions. Some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas. The family is distributed all over the world, and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Planthopper</span> Superfamily of insects

A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, a group exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers. However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate (Y-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Delphacidae</span> Family of planthoppers

Delphacidae is a family of planthoppers containing about 2000 species, distributed worldwide. Delphacids are separated from other "hoppers" by the prominent spur on the tibia of the hindleg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurybrachidae</span> Family of true bugs

Eurybrachidae is a small family of planthoppers with species occurring in parts of Asia, Australia and Africa. They are remarkable for the sophistication of their automimicry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown marmorated stink bug</span> Species of Pentatomid insect

The brown marmorated stink bug is an insect in the family Pentatomidae, native to China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian regions. In September 1998, it was collected in Allentown, Pennsylvania, where it is believed to have been accidentally introduced. The nymphs and adults of the brown marmorated stink bug feed on over 100 species of plants, including many agricultural crops, and by 2010–11 had become a season-long pest in orchards in the Eastern United States. In 2010, in the Mid-Atlantic United States, $37 million in apple crops were lost, and some stone fruit growers lost more than 90% of their crops. Since the 2010s, the bug has spread to countries such as Georgia and Turkey and caused extensive damage to hazelnut production. It is now established in many parts of North America, and has recently become established in Europe and South America.

Rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) is a plant pathogenic virus transmitted by the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, and two other Nilaparvata species, N. bakeri and N. muiri.

Rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Reoviridae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Male accessory gland</span> Sexual gland in males

Male accessory glands (MAG) in humans are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands. In insects, male accessory glands produce products that mix with the sperm to protect and preserve them, including seminal fluid proteins. Some insecticides can induce an increase in the protein content of the male accessory glands of certain types of insects. This has the unintended effect of increasing the number of offspring they produce.

<i>Metcalfa pruinosa</i> Species of planthopper

Metcalfa pruinosa, the citrus flatid planthopper, is a species of insect in the Flatidae family of planthoppers first described by Thomas Say in 1830.

<i>Peregrinus maidis</i> Species of true bug

Peregrinus maidis, commonly known as the corn planthopper, is a species of insect in the order Hemiptera and the family Delphacidae. It is widespread throughout most tropical and subtropical regions on earth, including southern North America, South America, Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia and China. P. maidis are a commercially important pest of maize and its relatives. In addition to physical plant damage, P. maidis is the vector for several species-specific maize viruses, including maize stripe virus, maize mosaic virus and the non-pathogenic Peregrinus maidis reovirus.

Epiricania melanoleuca is a moth in the family Epipyropidae. It was described by Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher in 1939. It is found in India, where its larvae are external parasitoids of the sugarcane planthopper. It has been used in biological pest control against this pest.

<i>Stobaera</i> Genus of true bugs

Stobaera is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae. There are about 14 described species in Stobaera.

<i>Sogatella</i> Genus of planthoppers

Sogatella is a genus of delphacid planthoppers in the family Delphacidae. There are more than 20 described species in Sogatella.

<i>Pardosa pseudoannulata</i> Species of arachnid

Pardosa pseudoannulata, a member of a group of species referred to as wolf-spiders, is a non-web-building spider belonging to the family Lycosidae. P. pseudoannulata are wandering spiders that track and ambush prey and display sexual cannibalism. They are commonly encountered in farmlands across China and other East Asian countries. Their venom has properties that helps it function as an effective insecticide, and it is, therefore, a crucial pesticide control agent.

Oryza eichingeri is a species of wild rice in the family Poaceae, with a disjunct distribution in Ivory Coast, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka. It is being studied as a source of genes for resistance to the brown planthopper, an important pest of cultivated rice.

<i>Megamelus scutellaris</i> Insect species

Megamelus scutellaris, the water hyacinth planthopper, is a true bug native to South America. It is used as a biological control agent to manage and reduce the spread of the water hyacinth, an invasive aquatic plant native to South America that has invaded many freshwater systems globally.

References

  1. ↑ Khush, GS (1999). "Green revolution: preparing for the 21st century". Genome. 42 (4): 646–55. doi: 10.1139/g99-044 . PMID   10464789.
  2. ↑ Oudhia, P. (2000). "Traditional medicinal knowledge about green leafhopper, Nephotettix spp., in Chhattisgarh (India)". International Rice Research Notes. 25 (3): 40.
  3. ↑ Hu, Qing-Ling; Zhuo, Ji-Chong; Fang, Gang-Qi; Lu, Jia-Bao; Ye, Yu-Xuan; Li, Dan-Ting; Lou, Yi-Han; Zhang, Xiao-Ya; Chen, Xuan; Wang, Si-Liang; Wang, Zhe-Chao; Zhang, Yi-Xiang; Mazlan, Norida; Oo, San San; Thet, Thet (2024-04-26). "The genomic history and global migration of a windborne pest". Science Advances. 10 (17): eadk3852. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adk3852. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   11042747 . PMID   38657063.
  4. ↑ "Brown plant hopper (BPH) | Rice Knowledge Management Portal - Rice,Paddy,Dhan,Chawal,Rice Research Domain, Rice Extension Domain, Rice Farmers Domain ,Rice General Domain, Rice Service Domain,RKMP,Rice in India,Rice Government Schemes, Rice ITKs, Rice FLDs, Rice Package of Practices". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
  5. ↑ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C.; Nesbitt, H. (2001). "Effectiveness of brown planthopper predators: population suppression by two species of spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata (Araneae, Lycosidae) and Araneus inustus (Araneae, Araneidae)". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 4 (2): 187–193. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60122-3.
  6. ↑ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C.; Nesbitt, H. J. (2002). "Establishment of Nilaparvata lugens Stål in rice crop nurseries: A possible source of outbreaks". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 5 (1): 75–83. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60134-X.
  7. ↑ Chelliah, S.; Heinrichs, E. A. (1980). "Factors Affecting Insecticide-Induced Resurgence of the Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens on Rice". Environmental Entomology. 9 (6): 773–777. doi:10.1093/ee/9.6.773.
  8. ↑ Wang, LiPing; Shen, Jun; Ge, LinQuan; Wu, JinCai; Yang, GuoQin; Jahn, Gary C. (2010). "Insecticide-induced increase in the protein content of male accessory glands and its effect on the fecundity of females in the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Crop Protection. 29 (11): 1280–1285. Bibcode:2010CrPro..29.1280W. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2010.07.009.
  9. ↑ Ge, Lin-Quan; Yao Chen; Jin-Cai Wu; Gary C Jahn (2011). "Proteomic analysis of insecticide triazophos-induced mating–responsive proteins of Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera:Delphacidae)". J. Proteome Res. 10 (10): 4597–4612. doi:10.1021/pr200414g. PMID   21800909.
  10. ↑ Jin-cai Wu, Jian-xiang Xu; Shu-zong Yuan, Jing-lan Liu; Yong-hou Jiang, Jun-feng Xu; Liu, Jing-lan; Jiang, Yong-hou; Xu, Jun-Feng (2001). "Pesticide-induced susceptibility of rice to brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 100 (1): 119–126. Bibcode:2001EEApp.100..119W. doi: 10.1046/j.1570-7458.2001.00854.x . S2CID   55055863.
  11. ↑ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C. (2006). "Brown planthopper outbreaks and management". Cambodian Journal of Agriculture. 7 (1): 17–25.
  12. ↑ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C. (2002). "Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål): immediate response". Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Rural Development Administration / Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 163–180.
  13. ↑ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Nesbitt, H. J.; Jahn, G. C. (2001). "Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 4 (1): 75–84. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7.
  14. ↑ "IRRI supports Thai move to stop insecticide use in rice". Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2011-06-03. IRRI media release: IRRI supports Thai move to stop insecticide use in rice.
  15. ↑ action plan Archived May 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ international conference Archived May 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ↑ Athwal, D. S.; Pathak, M. D.; Bacalangco, E. H.; Pura, C. D. (1971). "Genetics of Resistance to Brown Planthoppers and Green Leafhoppers in Oryza sativa L". Crop Sci. 11 (5): 747–750. doi:10.2135/cropsci1971.0011183X001100050043x.
  18. ↑ Alam, S. N.; Cohen, M. B. (8 December 1998). "Detection and analysis of QTLs for resistance to the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, in a doubled-haploid rice population". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 97 (8): 1370–1379. doi:10.1007/s001220051031. S2CID   13088029.
  19. ↑ Sangha, Jatinder; Chen, Yolanda; Kaur, Jatinder; Khan, Wajahatullah; Abduljaleel, Zainularifeen; Alanazi, Mohammed; Mills, Aaron; Adalla, Candida; Bennett, John; Prithiviraj, Balakrishnan; Jahn, Gary; Leung, Hei (15 February 2013). "Proteome Analysis of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Mutants Reveals Differentially Induced Proteins during Brown Planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) Infestation". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 14 (2): 3921–3945. doi: 10.3390/ijms14023921 . PMC   3588078 . PMID   23434671.
  20. ↑ Cohen, Michael B.; Alam, Syed N.; Medina, Edith B.; Bernal, Carmencita C. (1997). "Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, resistance in rice cultivar IR64: mechanism and role in successful N. lugens management in Central Luzon, Philippines". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 85 (3): 221–229. doi:10.1023/A:1003177914842.
  21. ↑ Sangha, Jatinder Singh; Yolanda H. Chen; Kadirvel Palchamy; Gary C. Jahn; M. Maheswaran; Candida B. Adalla; Hei Leung (2008). "Categories and Inheritance of Resistance to Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) in Mutants of Indica Rice 'IR64'". Journal of Economic Entomology. 101 (2): 575–583. doi:10.1603/0022-0493(2008)101[575:CAIORT]2.0.CO;2. PMID   18459427. S2CID   39941837.
  22. ↑ Cheng, Yao; Shi, Zhao-Peng; Jiang, Li-Ben; Ge, Lin-Quan; Wu, Jin-Cai; Jahn, Gary C. (March 2012). "Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 102 (3): 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003. PMC   3334832 . PMID   22544984.
  23. ↑ Bao, Yan-Yuan; Wang, Ying; Wu, Wen-Juan; Zhao, Dong; Xue, Jian; Zhang, Bao-Qin; Shen, Zhi-Cheng; Zhang, Chuan-Xi (April 2012). "De novo intestine-specific transcriptome of the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens revealed potential functions in digestion, detoxification and immune response". Genomics. 99 (4): 256–264. doi: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2012.02.002 . PMID   22361737.
  24. ↑ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1993). "Antimetabolic effects of plant lectins and plant and fungal enzymes on the nymphal stages of two important rice pests, Nilaparvata lugens and Nephotettix cinciteps". Entomol. Exp. Appl. 66: 119–126. doi:10.1007/BF02382280.
  25. ↑ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1995). "Antifeedant effects of plant lectins and an enzyme on the adult stage of the rice brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens". Entomol. Exp. Appl. 75: 51–59. doi:10.1007/BF02382779.
  26. ↑ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Peumans, W.; Damme, E. Van; Boonjawat, J.; Horsham, K.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1995). "Antimetabolic effects of related plant lectins towards nymphal stages of Nilaparvata lugens". Entomol.exp.appl. 75: 61–65. doi:10.1007/BF02382780.
  27. ↑ Rao, KV; Rathore, K. S.; Hodges, T. K.; Fu, X.; Stoger, E.; Sudhakar, D.; Williams, S.; Christou, P.; Bharathi, M.; Bown, D. P.; Powell, K.; Spence, J.; Gatehouse, A. R.; Gatehouse, J. (1998). "Expression of snowdrop lectin (GNA) in transgenic rice plants confers resistance to rice brown planthopper". The Plant Journal. 15 (4): 469–477. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-313X.1998.00226.x . PMID   9753773.
  28. ↑ Piyaphongkul, Jiranan; Pritchard, Jeremy; Bale, Jeffrey; Zars, Troy (12 January 2012). "Can Tropical Insects Stand the Heat? A Case Study with the Brown Planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stål)". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e29409. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...729409P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029409 . PMC   3257224 . PMID   22253720.

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