The indigenous peoples of Western New Guinea in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, commonly called Papuans,[2] are Melanesians. There is genetic evidence for two major historical lineages in New Guinea and neighboring islands: a first wave from the Malay Archipelago perhaps 50,000 years ago when New Guinea and Australia were a single landmass called Sahuland, much later, a wave of Austronesian people from the north who introduced Austronesian languages and pigs about 3,500 years ago. They also left a small but significant genetic trace in many coastal Papuan peoples.
The term "Papuan" is used in a wider sense in linguistics and anthropology. In linguistics, "Papuan languages" is a cover term for the diverse, mutually unrelated, non-Austronesian language families spoken in Melanesia, the Torres Strait Islands, and parts of Wallacea. In anthropology, "Papuan" is often used to denote the highly diverse aboriginal populations of Melanesia and Wallacea prior to the arrival of Austronesian-speakers, and the dominant genetic traces of these populations in the current ethnic groups of these areas.[4]
Children dressed up for sing‑sing in Papua New Guinea.
Languages
The language families in Ross's conception of the Trans-New Guinea language family.
Ethnologue's 14th edition lists 826 languages of Papua New Guinea and 257 languages of Western New Guinea, a total of 1083 languages, with 12 languages overlapping. If we adopt the figure proposed by Glottolog for Papua New Guinea, namely 928 languages,[6] the total is even higher. This corresponds to 15% of the world's 7700 languages.
In terms of linguistic families, the indigenous languages of New Guinea can be divided into two groups: 283 languages belong to the Austronesian family, and the other 858 are non-Austronesian[7]—a grouping commonly described as “Papuan languages” for convenience.
The term Papuan languages refers to an areal grouping, rather than a linguistic one. So-called “Papuan” languages are distributed into as many as eighty unrelated linguistic phyla, including 43 families and 37 isolates.[8]:6
Newly married Kayu Batu couple in Jayapura, Indonesia.
The following indigenous peoples live within the modern borders of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Austronesian-speaking (AN) groups are given in italics.
The official Agency for Language Development and Cultivation linguistic map of 325 native Papuan languages in Papua (Indonesia) alone (not including another Papuan languages beyond Papua in Eastern Indonesia as a whole).
According to the official Indonesian national linguistic data, there are at least 428 living Papuan languages (and 37 Papua-based isolate languages) natively spoken by the Papuans in Indonesia alone belonging to either Papuan or Austronesian language families,[13] making it the most linguistically diverse community in Indonesia. Papuan languages are also spoken outside of New Guinea such as the Timor–Alor–Pantar speakers in Timor, Alor, and Pantar,[14] as well as North Halmahera in Maluku Islands.[15][16]:20
Carving (especially wood carving) in Indonesian Papuan culture is not merely decorative—it embodies a deep connection to the spirit world, tradition, and community identity.[18] It is a significant artistic and cultural tradition among many Indigenous Papuan communities in Indonesia, especially in regions like Asmat, Kamoro, and Sentani. These carvings are deeply symbolic and often tied to spiritual beliefs, ancestral worship, and daily life.[18]
Among the Asmat Papuans, for example, wood carving is highly developed and serves ritual purposes. They create bis poles, tall carved wooden poles made to honor ancestors and used in funerary ceremonies. The carvings typically depict human figures, animals, and mythological symbols representing strength, protection, and spiritual connection. Meanwhile, Sentani artists are famous for carving motifs into wooden bark paintings and household items, often featuring spiral patterns and stylized figures.[18]
Mummification
Mummy of Weropak Elosak
In some highland communities, such as the Dani tribespeople in the Baliem Valley, mummification called akonipuk[id] is a traditional practice used to honor and preserve the bodies of important tribal leaders or warriors.[18] The process involves smoking the corpse over a fire for weeks to dry and preserve it, often in a sitting position. These mummies are then kept in special huts and are considered sacred, symbolizing ancestral strength and leadership. This tradition is now rare and mostly preserved as cultural heritage.[18] Similar mummification traditions are practiced by the Mee, the Moni, the Lani, the Eipo, among others.
Knitted noken made from Melinjo bark, common in highland areas
It is also inspired the Noken system, a unique electoral method used in Indonesia. Instead of individual voting, community leaders (Papuan tribal chiefs) vote on behalf of their people, often through consensus or traditional customs. This system respects local indigenous Papuan traditions and emphasizes communal decision-making rather than individual ballots. This system also known colloquially as 'Papuan hanging bag system' (named after the hanging Noken).[20]
Popular culture
Indonesian Papuan kids in Tarik tambang (lit.'Indonesian rope pulling') competition, taking place during the celebrations of the Indonesian Independence Day.
Indonesian Papuans have gained increasing recognition in popular culture (nationwide in Indonesia and internationally), particularly in the movie and music industries. In Indonesian cinema, Papuan actors have been cast in leading roles, portraying authentic stories from their communities and highlighting the region's unique cultural identity. In the music scene, Papuan artists have also emerged in mainstream competitions and platforms, showcasing powerful vocals and distinct musical styles rooted in their heritage. This growing representation reflects a broader movement toward inclusion and appreciation of Papua's contributions to Indonesia's cultural diversity.
↑ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol.4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp.21–195. ISBN978-3-11-028642-7.
↑ van Staden, Miriam; Reesink, Ger (2008). "Serial verb constructions in a linguistic area". In Senft, Gunter (ed.). Serial verb constructions in Austronesian and Papuan languages. Pacific Linguistics 594. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School Of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. pp.17–54. ISBN978-0-85883-591-7. OCLC271765117.
Phylogenetic position of the Papuan lineage among other East Eurasians.
Schematic summary of population settlement in Insular Southeast Asia, involving several East Eurasian lineages: (A) Initial occupation of Sunda and Sahul by ancestry related to modern New Guinean and Australian Aboriginal populations, followed by deep mainland Asian (Tianyuan- or Onge-related) ancestry. (B) Dispersals of ancestries associated with ancient Mainland Southeast Asian and ancestral Punan-related components predating the coastal South Chinese, and hence Austronesian-related, ancestries. (C) Austronesian expansion leading to Austronesian (Ami- and Kankanaey-related) ancestry observed in NE and SE Borneans and subsequent specific Papuan ancestry admixture observed in the Lebbo population in East Borneo.
The origin of Papuans is generally associated with the first settlement of Australasia by a lineage dubbed 'Australasians' or 'Australo-Papuans' during the Initial Upper Paleolithic, which is "ascribed to a population movement with uniform genetic features and material culture" (Ancient East Eurasians), and sharing deep ancestry with modern East Asian peoples and other Asia-Pacific groups.[2][3][4] It is estimated that people reached Sahul (the geological continent consisting of Australia and New Guinea) between 50,000 and 37,000 years ago. Rising sea levels separated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago. However, Aboriginal Australians and Papuans had diverged genetically much earlier, around 40,000 years BP. Papuans are more closely related to Melanesians than to Aboriginal Australians.[5][4]
Haplogroups
The majority of Papuan Y-DNA Haplogroups belong to subclades of HaplogroupMS, and HaplogroupC1b2a. The frequency of each haplogroup varies along geographic clines.[6][7]
Autosomal DNA
The genetic makeup of Papuans is primarily derived from Ancient East Eurasians, which relates them to other mainland Asian groups such as the "AASI", Andamanese, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Papuans may have also received some gene flow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%,[8] next to additional archaic Denisovan admixture in the Sahul region. Papuans may harbor varying degrees of deep admixture from "a lineage basal to West and East-Eurasians which occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya", although they are generally regarded "as a simple sister group of Tianyuan" ("Basal East Asians").[3][4][2] They are also closely related to Andamanese Onge and East Asians and mainly differ due to their Denisovan admixture.[9]
PCA plot of genetic variation of worldwide populations. Papuans (green) cluster relative close to other East Eurasians, such as East/Southeast Asians.
There is evidence that the ancestors of Papuans and related groups "underwent a strong bottleneck before the settlement of the region, and separated around 20,000–40,000 years ago".[10]
Papuans display pronounced genetic diversity, explained through isolation and drift between different subgroups after the settlement of New Guinea. The most notable differentiation was found to be between Highlanders and Lowlanders. Papuan Highlanders fall into three clusters, but form a single clade compared against Lowlanders. The Highlanders underwent a population bottleneck around 10,000 years ago, associated with the adoption of Neolithic lifestyles. Papuan Lowlanders display increased diversity and can be broadly differentiated into a Southern Lowlander cluster and a Northern Lowlander cluster. The genetic differentiation among Papuans is suggested to date back at least 20kya, while the sub-structure among Highlanders dates back around 10kya, with higher diversity among western Highlanders than Eastern ones. The genetic diversity is paralleled by linguistic and cultural diversity.[11]
Archaic introgression
Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Papuans interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.[12] Denisovan introgressions may have influenced the immune system of present-day Papuans and potentially favoured "variants to immune-related phenotypes" and "adaptation to the local environment".[13]
ASPM gene
In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Papuan people have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM HaplogroupD, at 59.4% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.[14] While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the haplogroupD allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase.
Notable people
Abba Bina, Papua New Guinean businessman and politician
Torres Strait Islanders between New Guinea and mainland Australia (including the Meriam people, whose language family is otherwise found in New Guinea)
1 2 3 Vallini, Leonardo; Marciani, Giulia; Aneli, Serena; Bortolini, Eugenio; Benazzi, Stefano; Pievani, Telmo; Pagani, Luca (10 April 2022). "Genetics and Material Culture Support Repeated Expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a Population Hub Out of Africa". Genome Biology and Evolution. 14 (4). doi:10.1093/gbe/evac045. ISSN1759-6653. PMC9021735. PMID35445261. Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 kya it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East-Eurasians and a lineage basal to West and East-Eurasians which occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya, or as a sister lineage of East-Eurasians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities.
↑ 崎谷, 満 (2009). "DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史: 日本人集団・日本語の成立史"[New History of the Japanese Archipelago Revealed by Interdisciplinary Research on DNA, Archeology, and Language]. (No Title) (in Japanese).
↑ Mekel-Bobrov, Nitzan; Gilbert, Sandra L.; Evans, Patrick D.; Vallender, Eric J.; Anderson, Jeffrey R.; Hudson, Richard R.; Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Lahn, Bruce T. (9 September 2005). "Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM, a Brain Size Determinant in Homo sapiens". Science. 309 (5741): 1720–1722. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1720M. doi:10.1126/science.1116815. ISSN0036-8075. PMID16151010. S2CID30403575.
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Papua New Guinea 
Western New Guinea, Indonesia 
Australia 
