Languages of Vanuatu

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Languages of Vanuatu
Trilingual warning signs in Vanuatu.jpg
Signage in English, Bislama, and French
Official English, French, Bislama
National Bislama
Indigenous 138 languages, all Oceanic
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The Republic of Vanuatu has the world's highest linguistic density per capita. [1] Despite being a country with a population of less than 300,000, [2] Vanuatu is home to 138 indigenous Oceanic languages.

Contents

The country's three official languages are of foreign origin: English, French, and Bislama, an English-based creole language.

Additional languages are also spoken as a result of recent migrations (e.g. Samoan, Hakka Chinese, Mandarin Chinese).

The linguistic situation in Vanuatu

Indigenous languages

There are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago (listed below), all of them belonging to the Austronesian family of languages.

Vanuatu is the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world: it currently shows an average of about 1,760 speakers for each indigenous language, and went through a historical low of 565; [1] only Papua New Guinea comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered, with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable to extinction. [3]

Bislama

A Bislama speaker, recorded in Vanuatu.

Bislama, a creole language derived from English, similar to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and other nearby creoles, is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu, that is, the residents of Port Vila and Luganville; it is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands.

In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009. [4]

Out of the three official languages, Bislama is the most spoken in Vanuatu, followed by English, and lastly French.

English and French

From the times when Vanuatu was a British-French condominium, there is still an unofficial separation line between regions where English or French are taught at school. According to Ethnologue , English is the first language of 6,000 people (2% of the population) and it is spoken as a second language by 120,000 people (40%). [5] French is the first language of 1,800 people (1%) and is spoken as a second language by 87,000 people (29%). [5]

The majority of the country's population (63.2% in 2009) [4] speak an indigenous language as their first language, with Bislama as a second language. English and French are generally spoken as third languages, in spite of their official status.

List of Vanuatu’s indigenous languages

A speaker of Mwotlap, recorded in Vanuatu.

Vanuatu is home to more than a hundred indigenous languages: a recent count lists 138. [6] Among them, three became extinct in recent decades. Many are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo and Malakula are linguistically the most diverse, with about two dozen languages each.

Some language names refer to networks of dialects rather than unified languages. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum spoken across several islands in Malampa Province. In such cases, the decision as to how many languages should be counted is notoriously difficult, and sometimes the object of controversy. The number of 112 listed below may differ from other counts proposed in the literature, depending partly on these difficulties. [7]

All indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Oceanic. Three are Polynesian languages of the Futunic group: Emae , Mele-Fila and Futuna-Aniwa . The remaining languages belong to these three groups of the Southern Oceanic branch of Oceanic:

Ethnologue

Below is the Ethnologue's list of most of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu, which are still spoken or were until recently. [8] It provides links to an OLAC list of media resources on the language. [9]

Tip: Click on the column title to change the sort order.

LanguageOLACOther namesSpeakers% of total
population		RegionFamilyNotes
Akei tsr Tasiriki6500.2404 Espiritu Santo NCV
Amblong alm 3000.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV
Anejom̃ aty Aneityum9000.3328 Aneityum SV
Aore aor Extinct0.0000 Espiritu Santo, Aore NCV
Apma app 7,8002.8846 Pentecost NCV
Araki akr 80.0030 Araki NCV Moribund
Aulua aul 7500.2774 Malekula NCV
Avava tmb Katbol7000.2589 Malekula NCV
Axamb ahb Ahamb7500.2774 Malekula NCV
Baetora btr 1,3300.4919 Maewo NCV
Baki bki Burumba, Paki3500.1294 Epi NCV
Bierebo bnk Bonkovia-yevali8000.2959 Epi NCV
Bieria brj Bieri, Vovo, Wowo700.0259 Epi NCV Endangered
Burmbar vrt Banan Bay, Vartavo9000.3328 Malekula NCV
Butmas-Tur bnr Ati5200.1923 Espiritu Santo NCV
Central Maewo mwo 1,4000.5177 Maewo NCV
Daakie ptv Port-Vato1,3000.4808 Ambrym NCV
Daakaka bpa Baiap, South Ambrym1,2000.4438 Ambrym NCV
Dixon Reef dix 500.0185 Malekula NCV Shifting
Dorig wwo Wetamut3000.1109 Banks Islands (Gaua) NCV
Emae mmw 4000.1479 Shepherd Islands (Emae) Polynesian
Eton etn 5000.1849 Efate NCV
Fortsenal frt Kiai4500.1664 Espiritu Santo NCV
Futuna-Aniwa fut West Futuna1,5000.5547 Futuna, Aniwa Polynesian
Hano lml Raga6,5002.4038 Pentecost NCV
Hiw hiw Hiu2800.1035 Torres Islands (Hiw) NCV
Ifo iff Extinct0.0000 Erromango SV
Kwamera tnk 3,5001.2944 Tanna SV
Koro krf 2500.0925 Banks Islands (Gaua) NCV
Lamenu lmu Lamen, Varmali8500.3143 Epi, Lamen NCV
Lakon lkn Lakona; Vurē8000.2959 Banks Islands (Gaua) NCV
Lamap psw Port Sandwich1,2000.4438 Malekula NCV
Larevat lrv Laravat6800.2515 Malekula NCV
Lehali tql 2000.0740 Banks Islands (Ureparapara) NCV
Lelepa lpa Havannah Harbour4000.1479 Lelepa, Efate NCV
Lemerig lrz Sasar20.0007 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava) NCV Moribund
Lenakel tnl 11,5004.2529 Tanna SV
Letemboi nms Small Nambas8000.2959 Malekula NCV
Lewo lww Varsu2,2000.8136 Epi NCV
Lonwolwol crc West Ambrym1,2000.4438 Ambrym NCV
Lorediakarkar lnn 8500.3143 Espiritu Santo NCV
Lo-Toga lht Loh, Toga5800.2145 Torres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua) NCV
Löyöp urr Lehalurup2400.0888 Banks Islands (Ureparapara) NCV
Mae mme Dirak1,0000.3698 Malekula NCV
Maii mmm 1800.0666 Epi NCV
Malfaxal mlx Na’ahai6000.2219 Malekula NCV
Malua Bay mll Middle Nambas5000.1849 Malekula NCV
Maragus mrs 150.0055 Malekula NCV
Maskelynes klv 1,1000.4068 Malekula, Maskelynes Islands NCV
Mav̈ea mkv Mavea, Mafea340.0126 Mav̈ea NCV
Mele-Fila mxe Ifira-Mele3,5001.2944 Efate, Mele, Ifira Polynesian
Merei lmb 4000.1479 Espiritu Santo NCV
Morouas mrp 1500.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV
Mota mtt 7500.2774 Banks Islands (Mota) NCV
Mpotovoro mvt 4300.1590 Malekula NCV
Mwerlap mrm Merlav1,1000.4068 Banks Islands (Merelava) NCV
Mwesen msn Mosina100.0037 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava) NCV
Mwotlap mlv Motlav2,1000.7766 Banks Islands (Motalava) NCV
Nahavaq sns South West Bay7000.2589 Malekula NCV
Nakanamanga llp 9,5003.5133 Efate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa) NCV
Namakura nmk Makura3,7501.3868 Efate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki) NCV
Naman lzl Litzlitz150.0055 Malekula NCV
Narango nrg 1600.0592 Espiritu Santo NCV
Nasarian nvh 50.0018 Malekula NCV
Navut nsw 5200.1923 Espiritu Santo NCV
Nese 1600.0592 Malekula NCV
Neverver lgk Lingarak1,2500.4623 Malekula NCV
Ninde mwi Labo1,1000.4068 Malekula NCV
Nisvai –Vetbon1400.0518 Malekula NCV Unesco
Nokuku nkk 1600.0592 Espiritu Santo NCV
North Tanna tnn 5,0001.8491 Tanna SV
North Ambrym mmg 5,2501.9416 Ambrym NCV
Northeast Ambae omb Lolovoli; Aoba5,0001.8491 Ambae NCV
Nume tgs Tarasag7000.2589 Banks Islands (Gaua) NCV
Olrat olr Extinct0.0000 Banks Islands (Gaua) NCV
Paama paa Paamese6,0002.2189 Paama NCV
Piamatsina ptr 1500.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV
Polonombauk plb 2200.0814 Espiritu Santo NCV
Repanbitip rpn 900.0333 Malekula NCV
Rerep pgk Pangkumu, Tisman3800.1405 Malekula NCV
Roria rga Mores750.0277 Espiritu Santo NCV
Saa sax Sa2,5000.9245 Pentecost NCV
Sakao sku Hog Harbour, N'kep4,0001.4793 Espiritu Santo, Sakao NCV
Shark Bay ssv 4500.1664 Espiritu Santo, Litaro NCV
Sie erg Se, Erromanga1,9000.7027 Erromango SV
Ske ske Seke3000.1109 Pentecost NCV
South Efate erk Erakor, Nafsan6,0002.2189 Efate NCV
Southeast Ambrym tvk 3,7001.3683 Ambrym NCV
Southwest Tanna nwi 5,0001.8491 Tanna SV
Sowa sww Extinct0.0000 Pentecost NCV
Sungwadia mrb Marino; North Maewo5000.1849 Maewo NCV
Tamambo mla Malo; Tamabo4,0001.4793 Malo NCV
Tambotalo tls 500.0185 Espiritu Santo NCV
Tangoa tgp 8000.2959 Tangoa NCV
Tasmate tmt 1500.0555 Espiritu Santo NCV
Tiale mnl 4000.1479 Espiritu Santo NCV
Tolomako tlm 9000.3328 Espiritu Santo NCV
Tutuba tmi 5000.1849 Espiritu Santo, Tutuba NCV
Unua onu Onua5200.1923 Malekula NCV
Ura uur 60.0022 Erromango SV
Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin upv Uripiv9,0003.3284 Malekula NCV
Valpei vlp 3000.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV
Vao vao 1,9000.7027 Vao, Malekula NCV
V’ënen Taut nmb Big Nambas3,3501.2389 Malekula NCV
Vera’a vra Vatrata5000.1849 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava) NCV
Vinmavis vnm Neve’ei5000.1849 Malekula NCV
Volow mlv ValuwaExtinct0.0000 Banks Islands (Mota Lava) NCV
Vunapu vnp 3800.1405 Espiritu Santo NCV
Vurës msn Vureas, Mosina2,0000.7396 Banks Islands (Vanua Lava) NCV
Wailapa wlr 1000.0370 Espiritu Santo NCV
West Ambae nnd Duidui8,7003.2174 Ambae NCV
Whitesands tnp 7,5002.7736 Tanna SV
Wusi wsi 3000.1109 Espiritu Santo NCV

François et al. (2015)

The following list of 138 Vanuatu languages is from François et al. (2015:18-21).

No.LanguageOther namesSpeakers ISO 639-3 Region
1 Hiw Hiu 280 hiw Torres Islands (Hiw)
2 Lo-Toga Loh, Toga 580 lht Torres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua)
3 Lehali 200 tql Banks Islands (Ureparapara)
4 Löyöp Lehalurup 240 urr Banks Islands (Ureparapara)
5 Mwotlap Motlav 2100 mlv Banks Islands (Motalava)
6 Volow Valuwa 1 mlv Banks Islands (Motalava)
7 Mota 750 mtt Banks Islands (Mota)
8 Lemerig Sasar 2 lrz Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
9 Vera'a Vatrata 500 vra Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
10 Vurës Vureas, Mosina 2000 msn Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
11 Mwesen Mosina 10 msn Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
12 Nume Tarasag 700 tgs Banks Islands (Gaua)
13 Dorig Wetamut 300 wwo Banks Islands (Gaua)
14 Koro 250 krf Banks Islands (Gaua)
15 Olrat 3 olr Banks Islands (Gaua)
16 Lakon Lakona, Vurē 800 lkn Banks Islands (Gaua)
17 Mwerlap Merlav 1100 mrm Banks Islands (Merelava)
18 Sungwadia Marino, North Maewo 500 mrb Maewo
19 Sungwadaga Central Maewo 1400 mwo Maewo
20 Baetora South Maewo, Sungaloge 1330 btr Maewo
21 East Ambae Lolovoli, Aoba 5000 omb Ambae
22 West Ambae Duidui 8700 nnd Ambae
23 Raga Hano 6500 lml Pentecost
24 Apma 7800 app Pentecost
25 Ske Seke 300 ske Pentecost
26 Sa Saa 3900 sax Pentecost
27 Tolomako Bigbay 900 tlm Espiritu Santo
28 Piamatsina 250 ptr Espiritu Santo
29 Vunapu 380 vnp Espiritu Santo
30 Valpei 300 vlp Espiritu Santo
31 Nokuku 250 nkk Espiritu Santo
32 Meri Tasmate, Oa 300 tmt Espiritu Santo
33 Wusi Kula 350 wsi Espiritu Santo
34 Bura 300 Espiritu Santo
35 Merei Tiale, Lametin 400 lmb, mnl Espiritu Santo
36 Mores Ko 200 mrp Espiritu Santo
37 Ande Morouas 500 Espiritu Santo
38 Toksiki Soisoru, Roria 200 rga Espiritu Santo
39 Kiai Fortsenal 450 frt Espiritu Santo
40 Moiso 100 Espiritu Santo
41 Kene 300 Espiritu Santo
42 Daruru 100 Espiritu Santo
43 Akei Tasiriki 4000 tsr Espiritu Santo
44 Retlatur 100 Espiritu Santo
45 Wailapa Ale 500 wlr Espiritu Santo
46 Farsaf Narango, Nambel 400 nrg Espiritu Santo
47 Varavara Amblong, Aje 300 alm Espiritu Santo
48 Narmoris 220 plb Espiritu Santo
49 Biliru Tambotalo 3 tls Espiritu Santo
50 Atin 120 Espiritu Santo
51 Ati Polonombauk, Meris 85 Espiritu Santo
52 Farnanto 100 Espiritu Santo
53 Se Fanafo 20 Espiritu Santo
54 Sinia Navut 520 nsw Espiritu Santo
55 Butmas-Tur Ati, Farafi 520 bnr Espiritu Santo
56 Ngen Shark Bay 450 ssv Espiritu Santo, Litaro
57 Tholp Nethalp 0 Espiritu Santo
58 Sakao Hog Harbour, Nkep 4000 sku Espiritu Santo
59 Mavea Mav̋ea, Mafea 34 mkv Espiritu Santo, Mavea
60 Tutuba 500 tmi Espiritu Santo, Tutuba
61 Aore 0 aor Espiritu Santo, Aore
62 Tamambo Malo, Tamabo 4000 mla Espiritu Santo, Malo
63 Tangoa Movono 370 tgp Espiritu Santo, Tangoa
64 Araki 8 akr Espiritu Santo, Araki
65 Axamb Ahamb 750 ahb Malakula
66 Lendamboi Small Nambas, Letemboi 800 nms Malakula
67 Nasvang 275 Malakula
68 Sörsörian 3 Malakula
69 Avok 500 Malakula, Avok
70 Uliveo Maskelynes 1100 klv Malakula, Maskelynes
71 Port Sandwich Lamap 1200 psw Malakula
72 Nisvai Vetbon 200 Malakula
73 Burmbar Banam Bay, Vartavo 900 vrt Malakula
74 Mbwenelang <10 Malakula
75 Aulua 750 aul Malakula
76 Niolean Repanbitip 90 rpn Malakula
77 Rerep Pangkumu, Tisman 380 pgk Malakula
78 Unua Onua 520 onu Malakula
79 Vivti <5 Malakula
80 Nitita <5 Malakula
81 Avava Katbol, Navava, Bangsa’ 700 tmb Malakula
82 Neverver Lingarak, Nevwervwer 1250 lgk Malakula
83 Litzlitz Naman 15 lzl Malakula
84 Uripiv Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin, Northeast Malakula 9000 upv Malakula, Atchin, Uripiv
85 Rutan  ? Malakula
86 Botovro Mpotovoro 430 mvt Malakula
87 Vao 1900 vao Malakula, Vao
88 Alovas  ? Malakula
89Vovo475 Malakula
90 Nese Matanvat 160 Malakula
91 Najit <5 Malakula
92 Malua Bay Middle Nambas 500 mll Malakula
93 Njav 10 Malakula
94 Tirax Mae, Dirak 1000 mme Malakula
95 V'ënen Taut Big Nambas 3350 nmb Malakula
96 Tape Maragus 15 mrs Malakula
97 Larëvat Laravat, Larevat 680 lrv Malakula
98 Neve'ei Vinmavis 500 vnm Malakula
99 Nivat <10 Malakula
100 Nasarian 5 nvh Malakula
101 Aveteian Dixon Reef 50 dix Malakula
102 Ninde Labo 1100 mwi Malakula
103 Nahavaq South West Bay, Siesip 700 sns Malakula
104 Nāti 25 Malakula
105 Naha'ai Malvaxal, Malfaxal 600 mlx Malakula
106 Navwien 5 Malakula
107 North Ambrym 5250 mmg Ambrym
108 Orkon Fanbak 30 Ambrym
109 Southeast Ambrym 3700 tvk Ambrym
110 Daakie Port Vato 1300 ptv Ambrym
111 Daakaka South Ambrym, Baiap 1200 bpa Ambrym
112 Dalkalaen 1000 Ambrym
113 Raljago West Ambrym, Lonwolwol <10 crc Ambrym
114 Paama Paamese 6000 paa Paama
115 Lamen Lamenu, Varmali 850 lmu Epi, Lamen
116 Lewo Varsu 2200 lww Epi
117 Bierebo Bonkovia-Yevali 900 bnk Epi
118 Baki Burumba, Paki 350 bki Epi
119 Mkir Maii 180 mmm Epi
120 Bieria Bieri, Vovo, Wowo 25 brj Epi
121 Namakura Makura, Namakir 3750 nmk Efate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki)
122 Emae Makatea 400 mmw Shepherd Islands (Emae)
123 Nakanamanga 9500 llp Efate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa)
124 Lelepa Havannah Harbour 400 lpa Efate, Lelepa
125 Eton 500 etn Efate
126 South Efate Erakor 6000 erk Efate
127 Mele-Fila Ifira-Mele 3500 mxe Efate, Mele, Ifira
128 Sie Se, Sie, Erromanga 1900 erg Erromango
129 Ura 6 uur Erromango
130 Utaha 0 iff Erromango
131 North Tanna 5000 tnn Tanna
132 Lenakel Netvaar 11500 tnl Tanna
133 Southwest Tanna Nawal 5000 nwi Tanna
134 Whitesands Narak 7500 tnp Tanna
135 Kwamera Nafe, Nɨfe 3500 tnk Tanna
137 Anejom̃ Aneityum 900 aty Aneityum
138 Futuna-Aniwa West Futuna 1500 fut Futuna, Aniwa

Notes

  1. 1 2 See François et al. (2015:8-9); and also Crowley (2000:50); François (2012:86).
  2. ↑ The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu”, CIA World Factbook).
  3. ↑ Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN   978-0-19-515246-3.
  4. 1 2 François (2012:104).
  5. 1 2 Vanuatu in Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2022). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (25th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
  6. ↑ See François et al. (2015).
  7. ↑ Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015:4-7).
  8. ↑ This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015:18-21) for a list of 138 items.
  9. ↑ The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bislama</span> English-based creole language of Vanuatu

Bislama is an English-based creole language and one of the official languages of Vanuatu. It is the first language of many of the "Urban ni-Vanuatu" and the second language of much of the rest of the country's residents. The lyrics of "Yumi, Yumi, Yumi", the country's national anthem, are composed in Bislama.

The nine South Vanuatu languages form a family of the Southern Oceanic languages, spoken in Tafea Province of Vanuatu.

The Central Vanuatu languages form a linkage of Southern Oceanic languages spoken in central Vanuatu.

Terence Michael Crowley was a linguist specializing in Oceanic languages as well as Bislama, the English-lexified Creole recognized as a national language in Vanuatu. From 1991 he taught in New Zealand. Previously, he was with the Pacific Languages Unit of the University of the South Pacific in Vanuatu (1983–90) and with the Department of Language and Literature at the University of Papua New Guinea (1979–83).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern Oceanic languages</span> Subgroup of the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family

The Southern Oceanic languages are a linkage of Oceanic languages spoken in Vanuatu and New Caledonia. It was proposed by John Lynch in 1995 and supported by later studies. It appears to be a linkage rather than a language family with a clearly defined internal nested structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Efate language</span> Austronesian language spoken in Vanuatu

North Efate, also known as Nakanamanga or Nguna, is an Oceanic language spoken on the northern area of Efate in Vanuatu, as well as on a number of islands off the northern coast – including Nguna, and parts of Tongoa, Emae and Epi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ureparapara</span> Island of Vanuatu

Ureparapara is the third largest island in the Banks group of northern Vanuatu, after Gaua and Vanua Lava.

Kiai is an Oceanic language spoken by about 450 people in the central highlands of Espiritu Santo island, in Vanuatu.

Mwesen is an Oceanic language spoken in the southeastern area of Vanua Lava Island, in the Banks Islands of northern Vanuatu, by about 10 speakers.

Löyöp is an Oceanic language spoken by about 240 people, on the east coast of Ureparapara Island in the Banks Islands of Vanuatu. It is distinct from Lehali, the language spoken on the west coast of the same island.

Lenakel, or West Tanna, is a dialect chain spoken on the western coast of Tanna Island in Vanuatu.

Wailapa, or Ale, is an Oceanic language spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu. It is in a dialect chain between Akei and Penantsiro, but these are not mutually intelligible.

Darrell T. Tryon was a New Zealand-born linguist, academic, and specialist in Austronesian languages. Specifically, Tryon specialised in the study of the languages of the Pacific Islands, particularly Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and the French-speaking Pacific.

The Espiritu Santo languages are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.

Dalkalaen is a Central Vanuatu language spoken by about 1,000 people on the southwestern tip of Ambrym Island, Vanuatu.

Moiso is an Espiritu Santo language of Vanuatu. It is spoken in Moriuli village in central Santo Island by about 100 people.

Kene is an Espiritu Santo language of Vanuatu with 300 speakers.

Daruru is an Espiritu Santo language of Vanuatu. There are perhaps 100 speakers in Pelmol village of western Santo Island.

Fanafo is an Espiritu Santo language of Vanuatu. It is spoken by 20 people in Vanafo and Butmas villages of eastern Santo Island.

Najit is a Malakula language of Vanuatu, spoken by less than 5 speakers.

References

Further reading

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