Futuna-Aniwa language

Last updated
Futuna-Aniwa
Region Vanuatu
Native speakers
1,500 (2001) [1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3 fut
Glottolog futu1245

Futuna-Aniwa is a language spoken in the Tafea Province of Vanuatu on the outlier islands of Futuna and Aniwa. The language has approximately 1,500 speakers. [1] It is a Polynesian language, part of the Austronesian language family. [2]

Contents

It is occasionally called West Futunan to distinguish it from East Futunan spoken on the islands of Futuna and Alofi in Wallis and Futuna.

Phonology

The phonology of Futuna-Aniwa is mostly similar to the phonology of Polynesian (Capell, 1984). However, there are some elements that are not consistent in Futuna-Aniwa with Polynesian (Capell, 1984). For example, in Futuna-Aniwa both l and r are present, although Polynesian languages normally have one or the other (Capell, 1984). Similarly, another distinction can be made between /s/ and /ʃ/ in Futuna, and /s/ and /tʃ/ in Aniwa, which is also not normal in Polynesian (Capell, 1984).

Consonantal System [3]
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasals m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩ ŋ ⟨g⟩
Plosives p ⟨p⟩ t ⟨t⟩( tʃ ⟨c⟩) k ⟨k⟩
Fricatives f ⟨f⟩ β ⟨v⟩ s ⟨s⟩ ʃ ⟨j⟩ h ⟨h⟩
Rhotic r ⟨r⟩
Lateral l ⟨l⟩
Vowel System [4]
Front Central Back
High i u
Mid e o
Low a

Looking at the information provided above, it is important to note out the variations of Aniwa compared to Futuna (Capell, 1984). The most important and recognizable variations from a multiple number of other variations is extreme palatalisation of dental consonants before front high and mid vowels, which also in some cases involves n- (Capell, 1984). An example of this is te/ti in Futuna is normally represented as ce/ci in Aniwa (Capell, 1984). Compared to Futuna, in Aniwa the velar plosive is backed more regularly, therefore k, q, and y is heard (Capell, 1984). This is shown most of the time, but there is a little freedom in variation (Capell, 1984). /k/ is retained before front vowels, word-initially, and before diphthongal clusters, /k/ becomes /q/ before /a/, and /k/ becomes /y/ before /o/ (Capell, 1984). The rule itself first shows that there is consciousness of the word and not just the utterance and secondly, the exceptions may show native ideas of boundaries and junctures (Capell, 1984). These are the main differences between the two dialects, however, it is noted by Capell that the data collected is not accurate or fully reliable from that particular village (Capell, 1984).

Morphology

Pronoun and person markers

Pronouns in Futuna-Aniwa distinguish for four numbers (singular, dual, trial and plural) and for first (inclusive and exclusive), second and third persons (Dougherty, 1983). The distinction of trial and plural in a Polynesian language is an unusual feature of Futuna-Aniwa (Capell, 1984).

There are primarily five different sets of pronominal forms in Futuna-Aniwa: personal, possessive, interrogative, emphatic, and demonstrative. In some circumstances, pronominal clitics will accompany these pronominal forms. (Dougherty, 1983)

Pronouns are not inflected for gender, but can be marked for oblique case (marked by i) and, optionally, subjective case (marked by e). (Dougherty, 1983)

Pronoun construction

Notably, pronouns in Futuna-Aniwa can all be easily can be divided into specific morphological components. For example, the second person nonsingular dual pronoun akorua (see below) is formed by combining the personal article prefix a-, the nonsingular, second person, pronominal focus infix –ko- and the dual suffix –(r)ua. (Dougherty, 1983)

The only exception to this are interrogative pronouns, whose morphological construction is more complex and variable.

Personal pronouns

Personal Pronouns are not obligatory in Futuna-Aniwa and may be omitted where context allows, as evident in example 1.

Unmarked Personal Pronouns
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 33)
SingularDualTrialPlural
1st personinclusiveavau, auakitauaakitatouakitea
exclusiveakimauaakimatouakimea
2nd personakoeakoruaakoutouakoua
3rd personaia, eiaakirauaakiratouakirea
(1)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 37)

ka-i

FUT.TNS-OBL

amkea

pick up

sa-i

RES.TNS-OBL

tufa

give

akoe

you

ka-i amkea sa-i tufa akoe

FUT.TNS-OBL {pick up} RES.TNS-OBL give you

'He'll pick it up and give it to you.'

Possessive pronouns

Pronouns in Futuna-Aniwa can be used to indicate inalienable possession, exclusively for singular persons. These appear immediately before an inalienable head noun. (Dougherty, 1983)

Inalienable Possessive Pronouns
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 73)
PersonSingularDualTrialPlural
1st person singulartukuruokutakokuoku
2nd person singulartouruoutakouou
3rd person singulartano, tanruanotakanoano
(2)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 74)

ruoku

1.DU.POSS

vae

leg

ma

CONJ

oku

1.PL.POSS

rima

arm

ruoku vae ma oku rima

1.DU.POSS leg CONJ 1.PL.POSS arm

'My two legs and my hands.'

There is also an equivalent “paradigm of personal pronoun suffixes” (Dougherty, 1983, p. 33) that occur in possessive constructions, suffixing onto nouns to indicate possession. Note that example (3) below can also be expressed using the above equivalent inalienable possessive pronouns.

Personal Pronoun Possessive Suffixes
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 34)
SingularDualTrialPlural
1st personinclusive-ku-taua-tatou-tea
exclusive-maua-matou-mea
2nd person-u-rua-utou-ua
3rd person-na, -no-raua-ratou-rea
(3)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 336)

tojina-ku

Uncle-1SG.POSS

tojina-ku

Uncle-1SG.POSS

'My uncle.'

Interrogative pronouns

There are 14 different interrogative pronoun forms in Futuna-Aniwa. Minimally, Futuna-Aniwa distinguishes between singular and nonsingular in all interrogative pronoun constructions. (Dougherty, 1983) Nonsingular interrogative pronouns appear in dual, trial and plural positions. (Capell, 1984)

Interrogative Pronouns
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 84-87)
Interrogative PronounEnglish TranslationNotes
akaiwhoSingular
akaimawhoNonsingular
akai, okaiwhoseSingular
akaima, okaimawhoseNonsingular
tahawhatSingular, specific
ahawhatNonsingular, specific
sahawhatNonspecific
jiahawhatDiminutive
tefe, tehewhichSingular
efe, ehewhichNonsingular
(4)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 85)

ta

ART

fare

house

okai

whose

ta fare okai

ART house whose

'Whose house is this?'

(5)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 87)

ta

ART

fare

house

tehe

which

ta fare tehe

ART house which

'Which house?'

Emphatic pronouns

Emphatic pronouns in Futuna-Aniwa are used to indicate that the designated referent in a clause is the only referent being referred to. (Dougherty, 1983)

Emphatic Pronouns
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 38)
SingularDualTrialPlural
1st personinclusivesokovausokitauasokitatousokitea
exclusivesokimauasokimatousokimea
2nd personsokoesokoruasokoutousokoua
3rd personsokoiasokirauasokiratousokirea
(6)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 504)

u

CONJ

aia

3SG

no-nofo

PRES.PROG.TNS-stay

sokoia

3SG.EMP

u aia no-nofo sokoia

CONJ 3SG PRES.PROG.TNS-stay 3SG.EMP

‘And so he lives all by himself.’

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Futuna-Aniwa distinguish three positions: position near speaker, position near addressee and distant position. They are in essence a grouping of the base demonstrative form and the Futuna-Aniwa article system (Dougherty, 1983). This is further explained in the Demonstratives section below.

Demonstrative Pronouns
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 28)
PositionSingularDualTrialPlural
Near Speakerte neiru neitaka neie nei, a ganei
Near Addresseete naru nataka nae na, a gana
Distantte raru rataka rae ra, a gara
(7)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 28)

a

ART

tiauau

Chauau

te ra

that

a tiauau {te ra}

ART Chauau that

‘That is Chauau.’

Pronominal clitics

Within certain constructions in Futuna-Aniwa pronominal clitics occur alongside pronouns. Pronominal clitics only occur with singular persons and serve the role of cross referencing the subject of a verb. The pronominal clitic is typically suffixed onto tense or aspect markers, negatives in preverbal position or the infinitive (Dougherty, 1983).

Pronominal clitics primarily occur within transitive constructions in Futuna-Aniwa, although not exclusively (Dougherty, 1983). This is evident through comparing example (8) (a transitive construction) with example (9) (an intransitive construction) below. The pronominal clitic is not present in (9), but is suffixed onto the preverbal negative particle in (8).

(8)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 37)

(avau)

1SG

se-n

NEG.PART-PRO.CLI

tahtaroa

wash

ma

NEG.PART

sa

ART

kapiti

cabbage

(avau) se-n tahtaroa ma sa kapiti

1SG NEG.PART-PRO.CLI wash NEG.PART ART cabbage

‘I didn't wash the cabbage.’

Note: In (8), the first personal singular was omitted from the original example. It has been included for clarity.

(9)
(Dougherty, 1983, p. 41)

avau

1SG

ka

FUT.TNS

muri

follow

avau ka muri

1SG FUT.TNS follow

'I'll follow.'

Demonstratives

Demonstratives in Futuna-Aniwa distinguish by location relative to the speaker, with three categories for relative distance: close to the speaker, close to the addressee, and far away from both. In natural speech, the distinction between what is close to the listener and what is far away can sometimes be lost, and the respective demonstrative for each can be used somewhat interchangeably in conversational settings. Most constructions in Futuna-Aniwa use a set of three demonstratives: nei, indicating position near the speaker, na, indicating position near the addressee, and ra, indicating distant position. (Dougherty, 1983, p 27)

These demonstratives can be traced back to Proto-Oceanic *ne, *ta and *wa [5] (Crowley, Lynch and Ross, 2013). Proto-Polynesian has *eni ('this, these'), which has the reflex *teenei ('this') and *(ee)nei ('these') in Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian. This implies an evolution from *ne in Proto-Oceanic, to *eni in Proto-Polynesian, to *teenei and *(ee)nei in PNP, which then became *nei in Futuna-Aniwa. However, Proto-Polynesian also has the marker *ni, referring to location close to the speaker in either time or space; in Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian, this became *nei. Dougherty (1983) lists both of these as origins of Futuna-Aniwa *nei. Their lexical similarity in meaning complements this understanding.

Articles

Demonstratives in Futuna-Aniwa are closely connected to the article system, as noted above in the Pronouns section. Most uses of the demonstratives in the language follow an article, typically used as optional clarifiers for the articles. While articles in Futuna-Aniwa typically go before the noun they modify, articles can also occur after that noun so they occur before a demonstrative. In this way, Futuna-Aniwa's demonstratives follow the nouns they modify, as is typical of most Austronesian languages, particularly in the Vanuatu region, according to the World Atlas of Language Structures.

ex:

a

ART.PL

fare

house

okai

whose

e

ART.PL

na?

these

a fare okai e na?

ART.PL house whose ART.PL these

'Whose houses are these?'

As the specific articles of the language distinguish by number, we can pair these articles and demonstratives together to give us the following table, as noted in the Pronouns section:

Demonstrative Pronouns
PositionSingularDualTrialPlural
Near Speakerte neiru neitaka neie nei, a ganei
Near Addresseete naru nataka nae na, a gana
Distantte raru rataka rae ra, a gara

In the above table, the sounds written correspond to the phonology of Futuna. In Aniwa, the singular would be ce nei, ce na, and ce ra respectively. The singular article in the above table could also be replaced with the singular diminutive ji article, changing in meaning from 'this thing' to 'this little thing'. (Dougherty, 1983, p 28)

The article te here is one of the three forms of the definite article. Typically, the definite article is ta, however ti is used for a restricted set of words, typically words beginning with a stressed vowel a. Te is the last form of the article and is typically restricted to a set of words that often, but not always, begins with a vowel. When combined with the article te, this vowel can sometimes be deleted. (Dougherty, 1983, p 22)7

Te can, however, be used as a demonstrative on its own. It is the only article with which this can occur. In this case, te comes after the noun, which is typical of demonstratives but untypical of articles. It's used in this manner as an emphatic article.

ex:

tou

your.GEN

pua

back

te!

this

tou pua te!

your.GEN back this

'This is your back!'

According to Dougherty, pe can also be used in the article position to specify an unmentioned referent. It is often used when making an example, not dissimilar to English like in a phrase like that or like this.

ex:

tane

he

ka

will.FUT

penage

behave

ana

just

pe

like

ra

that

tane ka penage ana pe ra

he will.FUT behave just like that

'He will behave just like that.'

The three key demonstratives can also be used in adjectival phrases, typically after the noun, although occasionally before; it is in these places that they are not bound to the article, whereas usually they would need an article of some kind. (Dougherty, 1983, p 29)

ex:

a

ART.PL

toro

sugarcane

ne

this

a toro ne

ART.PL sugarcane this

'this sugarcane'

Locative constructions

Demonstratives in Futuna-Aniwa can occur in locative constructions. The constructions use either i, denoting static position, or ki, denoting a motion towards the indicated position, followed by a person marker- either ku first person, or ko non-first person, followed by the relevant demonstrative. In first-person, the demonstrative can be omitted. For example, ikunei indicates a static position, with the first-person marker and the demonstrative indicating near the speaker, meaning ‘here, in this position’; kikora indicates movement (rather than a static position), the non-first person marker, and a distant position, meaning ‘towards there (that distant location)’. In designating position near the speaker, the final element nei is optional. The full table can be found below. (Dougherty, 1983, p. 31)

Demonstratives with i and ki
PositionStaticMoving ('toward')
Near Speakerikunei, ikukikunei, kiku
Near Addresseeikonakikona
Distantikorakikora

Related Research Articles

Rapa Nui or Rapanui, also known as Pascuan or Pascuense, is an Eastern Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. It is spoken on Easter Island, also known as Rapa Nui.

Pukapukan is a Polynesian language that developed in isolation on the island of Pukapuka in the northern group of the Cook Islands. As a "Samoic Outlier" language with strong links to western Polynesia, Pukapukan is not closely related to any other languages of the Cook Islands, but does manifest substantial borrowing from some East Polynesian source in antiquity.

Vaeakau-Taumako is a Polynesian language spoken in some of the Reef Islands as well as in the Taumako Islands in the Temotu province of Solomon Islands.

Taba is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the South Halmahera–West New Guinea group. It is spoken mostly on the islands of Makian, Kayoa and southern Halmahera in North Maluku province of Indonesia by about 20,000 people.

Tamambo, or Malo, is an Oceanic language spoken by 4,000 people on Malo and nearby islands in Vanuatu. It is one of the most conservative Southern Oceanic languages.

Anejom̃ or Aneityum is an Oceanic language spoken by 900 people on Aneityum Island, Vanuatu. It is the only indigenous language of Aneityum.

Ughele is an Oceanic language spoken by about 1200 people on Rendova Island, located in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands.

Kâte is a Papuan language spoken by about 6,000 people in the Finschhafen District of Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It is part of the Finisterre–Huon branch of the Trans–New Guinea language family. It was adopted for teaching and mission work among speakers of Papuan languages by the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea in the early 1900s and at one time had as many as 80,000 second-language speakers.

Uyghur is a Turkic language spoken mostly in the west of China.

Papuan Malay or Irian Malay is a Malay-based creole language spoken in the Indonesian part of New Guinea. It emerged as a contact language among tribes in Indonesian New Guinea for trading and daily communication. Nowadays, it has a growing number of native speakers. More recently, the vernacular of Indonesian Papuans has been influenced by Standard Indonesian, the national standard dialect. It is spoken in Indonesian New Guinea alongside 274 other languages and functions as a lingua franca.

Paresi is an Arawakan language spoken in Brazil. There are approximately 2000 Paresi people, and around 1800 speak the language. The Paresi live in the state of Mato Grosso, more specifically in nine indigenous territories: Rio Formoso, Utiariti, Estação Parecis, Estivadinho, Pareci, Juininha, Figueira, Ponte de Pedra, and Uirapuru. In terms of endangerment, it is not in immediate danger. It is used in many everyday domains, but there is a lack of transmission to younger generations, as well as an evident language shift to Portuguese. This is a result of Portuguese being used in education and healthcare, as well as the integration of Brazilian culture among the Paresi people, creating changes in their language and cultural practices.

Mav̋ea is an Oceanic language spoken on Mavea Island in Vanuatu, off the eastern coast of Espiritu Santo. It belongs to the North–Central Vanuatu linkage of Southern Oceanic. The total population of the island is approximately 172, with only 34 fluent speakers of the Mav̋ea language reported in 2008.

Tawala is an Oceanic language of the Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It is spoken by 20,000 people who live in hamlets and small villages on the East Cape peninsula, on the shores of Milne Bay and on areas of the islands of Sideia and Basilaki. There are approximately 40 main centres of population each speaking the same dialect, although through the process of colonisation some centres have gained more prominence than others.

Kelon, or Klon, is a Papuan language of the western tip of Alor Island in the Alor archipelago of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.

Tamashek or Tamasheq is a variety of Tuareg, a Berber macro-language widely spoken by nomadic tribes across North Africa in Algeria, Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. Tamasheq is one of the three main varieties of Tuareg, the others being Tamajaq and Tamahaq.

Merei or Malmariv is an Oceanic language spoken in north central Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baluan-Pam language</span> Oceanic language of Manus Province, Papua New Guinea

Baluan-Pam is an Oceanic language of Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. It is spoken on Baluan Island and on nearby Pam Island. The number of speakers, according to the latest estimate based on the 2000 Census, is 2,000. Speakers on Baluan Island prefer to refer to their language with its native name Paluai.

Neveʻei, also known as Vinmavis, is an Oceanic language of central Malekula, Vanuatu. There are around 500 primary speakers of Neveʻei and about 750 speakers in total.

North Ambrym is a language of Ambrym Island, Vanuatu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsʼixa language</span> Khoe language of Botswana

Tsʼixa is a critically endangered African language that belongs to the Kalahari Khoe branch of the Khoe-Kwadi language family. The Tsʼixa speech community consists of approximately 200 speakers who live in Botswana on the eastern edge of the Okavango Delta, in the small village of Mababe. They are a foraging society that consists of the ethnically diverse groups commonly subsumed under the names "San", "Bushmen" or "Basarwa". The most common term of self-reference within the community is Xuukhoe or 'people left behind', a rather broad ethnonym roughly equaling San, which is also used by Khwe-speakers in Botswana. Although the affiliation of Tsʼixa within the Khalari Khoe branch, as well as the genetic classification of the Khoisan languages in general, is still unclear, the Khoisan language scholar Tom Güldemann posits in a 2014 article the following genealogical relationships within Khoe-Kwadi, and argues for the status of Tsʼixa as a language in its own right. The language tree to the right presents a possible classification of Tsʼixa within Khoe-Kwadi:

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 Futuna-Aniwa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020). "Futuna-Aniwa". Glottolog 4.3.
  3. ↑ Dougherty, Janet W. D. (1983). West Futuna-Aniwa: An Introduction to a Polynesian Outlier Language . University of California Press. p.  2.
  4. ↑ Dougherty, Janet W. D. (1983). West Futuna-Aniwa: An Introduction to a Polynesian Outlier Language. University of California Press. pp.  2. ISBN   0-520-09657-6.
  5. ↑ Terry., Crowley (2013). The Oceanic Languages. Taylor and Francis. ISBN   978-1-136-74985-8. OCLC   831119322.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.