Marquesan language

Last updated
Marquesan
ʻEo ʻenana (North Marquesan)
ʻEo ʻenata (South Marquesan)
Native to French Polynesia
Region Marquesas Islands, Tahiti
Native speakers
8,700 (2007 census) [1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3 Either:
mrq   North Marquesan
mqm   South Marquesan
Glottolog marq1246   Marquesan
nort2845   North Marquesan
sout2866   South Marquesan
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Marquesan is a collection of East-Central Polynesian dialects, of the Marquesic group, spoken in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia. They are usually classified into two groups, North Marquesan and South Marquesan, roughly along geographic lines. [2]

Contents

Phonology

The most striking feature of the Marquesan languages is their almost universal replacement of the /r/ or /l/ of other Polynesian languages by a /ʔ/ (glottal stop). [3]

Like other Polynesian languages, the phonology of Marquesan languages is characterized by a scarcity of consonants and a comparative abundance of vowels. The consonant phonemes are:

Labial Alveolar Velar Glottal
Plosive p t k ʔ
Fricative f v h
Nasal m n ŋ
Liquid r

Of this small number of consonants, /ŋ/ is found only in eastern Nuku Hiva (Tai Pi Marquesan), and /f/ is found only in South Marquesan dialects. In writing, the phoneme /ŋ/ is written n(g), and /ʔ/ is written ʻ, the ʻokina.

Unlike most Austronesian languages, the /ŋ/ is not an isolated nasal: it is found only in conjunction with a following /k/. So, whereas the Samoan word for 'bay' is faga, pronounced [ˈfa.ŋa], it is hanga in Tai Pi Marquesan, and is pronounced /ˈha.ŋka/. This word is useful to demonstrate one of the more predictable regular consonantal differences between the northern and southern dialects: in North Marquesan, the word is haka, and in South Marquesan, it is hana.[ citation needed ]

The phoneme /h/ is represented with the letter h; however, it is realized phonetically as [h], [x], or [s], depending on the following vowel.[ example needed ]

The vowel phonemes are the same as in other Polynesian languages, long and short versions of each:

Front Central Back
LongShortLongShortLongShort
High iu
Mid eo
Low a

Alphabet

A E F H I K M N O P R S T U V ʻ
a e f h i k m n o p r s t u v ʻ [4]

Morpho-syntax

Noun and verb phrases

Verbal particles are placed before the verb they modify. [5]

Verbal Phrase [6]
Verbal Particlesexampleexample in a sentence
pastii ui (asked)te mehai i iu (the youth asked)
presentte...neite maakau nei (think)te maakau nei au i tuu kui (I think of my mother)
perfectiveu/uau hanau (was born)u hanau au i Hakehatau (I was born at Hakehatau)
imperfectiveee hee (going)e hee koe i hea (where are you going?)
inceptiveatahi aatahi a kai (then they eat)iu pao taia, atahi a kai (...when finish that, then do they eat)
imperativeaa hee! (go!)a hee io te tante (go to the doctor!)

A noun phrase in Marquesan is any phrase beginning with either a case marker or a determiner. Case markers or prepositions always precede the determiners, which in turn precede the number markers. As such, they all precede the noun they modify. [7]

Nominal Phrase Markers [7]
ArticlesDemonstrativesOther
definite singularte/t-thisteneia certaintitahi
indefinitee/hethattenaothertahipito
dual/paucal definitenathattea
anaphorichua
Nominal Number Markers [6] Number Markers
dualmou
dual/paucalmau
pluraltau

There are 11 personal pronouns which are distinguished by singular, dual, and plural. As well as that, there are two other personal pronouns which distinguish possession. [8] :100

Pronouns [8] :101
SingularDual/PaucalPluralPossession
1st
person
exclusive au/-ʻumauamatoutuʻu
inclusive tauatatou
2nd personkoekoʻuakotouto
3rd personiaʻauaʻatou

Complex sentences use verbal nouns in subordinate clauses.

ex:

Te

DEF

hakaiki

chief

kei

big

mei

from

Hanaiapa

Hanaiapa

te

DEF

ono-tina

hear-devb

te

def

hakaiki

chief

momo

lesser

mei[ what language is this? ]

from

Te hakaiki kei mei Hanaiapa te ono-tina te hakaiki momo mei[ what language is this? ]

DEF chief big from Hanaiapa DEF hear-devb def chief lesser from

Hanaiapa, o Tua-i-kaie, ua noho me te vehine pootu oko [9]

Possession

Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002) present descriptions and examples of possession in Ùa Pou (a north Marquesan dialect). All examples in this section are taken from their work. See notes for more information.

Possession in Marquesan is marked by prepositional particles affixed to the noun phrase which they modify. These prepositional particles relate the phrase as a whole to other parts of the sentence or discourse and therefore can be considered centrifugal particles. [10] Possession is essentially different from the other types of adposition modification in that it marks a relationship between two noun phrases as opposed to that between the verbal phrase and the noun phrase.

There are four possession markers in Marquesan. They are the prepositions: a, o, na and no. Possessive prepositions a and o translate as 'of' while na and no are attributive, possessive prepositions which translate either as 'belong to, of' or 'for'. [11]

a and o possessive prepositions

In these examples, the relation of two noun phases with the use of the possessive prepositions a and o can be seen. The preposition is affixed to the possessor noun phrase which in turn dominates the possessed phrase.

ex:

Úa

PFV

tihe

arrive

mai

hither

te

DEF

vahana

husband

a

of

tenei

this

tau

PL

vehine

woman

Úa tihe mai te vahana a tenei tau vehine

PFV arrive hither DEF husband of this PL woman

"The husband of these women has arrived."

ex:

Úa

PFV

tau

land

ma

path

ùka

top

o

of

te

DEF

haè

house

Úa tau ma ùka o te haè

PFV land path top of DEF house

"(It) landed on top of the house."

na and no attributive, possessive prepositions

In these examples, we see the relation of constituents which form a noun phrase. This is an example of attributive, alienable possession.

ex:

…ùa

PFV

ìò

taken

i

STATAG

-a

PERS

Tainaivao

Tainaivao

è

INDEF

tama

son

na

of (belong to)

Pekapeka…

Pekapeka

…ùa ìò i -a Tainaivao è tama na Pekapeka…

PFV taken STATAG PERS Tainaivao INDEF son {of (belong to)} Pekapeka

'(she) was taken by Tainaivao, a son of Pekapeka.'

ex:

À

IMP

too

take

tēnei

this

vaka

canoe

no

for

koe

2SG

À too tēnei vaka no koe

IMP take this canoe for 2SG

'Take this canoe for yourself.'

Dominant vs subordinate possession

Marquesan distinguishes between two contrastive types of possession. [10] The first can be described in very broad terms as possession in which the possessor is dominant, active, superior, or in control of the possessed. A and na mark this type of possession:

ex:

E

NP

ìò

take

koe

2SG

he

INDEF

mea

thing

vehine

woman

na

of

ia

him

E ìò koe he mea vehine na ia

NP take 2SG INDEF thing woman of him

"You will get a wife for him."

On the other hand, o and no indicate possession where the possessor is subordinate, passive, inferior to, or lacking in control over the possessed:

ex:

Ù

PFV

kave

bring

mai

hither

koe

2SG

i

DO

tēnā

that

kahu

dress

no

for

ia

her

Ù kave mai koe i tēnā kahu no ia

PFV bring hither 2SG DO that dress for her

"You have brought that dress for her (to wear)."

Locative phrases

Locative constructions in Marquesan follow this pattern (elements in parentheses are optional):

Preposition - (Modifier) - lexical head - (Directional) - (Demonstrative) - (Modifier) - Possessive Attribute/Attributive Noun Phrases [8] :282
ex:

Huʻi-ʻia

turn-PASS

atu

DIR

t-o

ART-POSS

ia

3SG

keo

bottom

ʻi

LD

tai

sea

Huʻi-ʻia atu t-o ia keo ʻi tai

turn-PASS DIR ART-POSS 3SG bottom LD sea

"Its bottom is turned seawards." [8] :284

This locative syntactic pattern is common among Polynesian languages. [8] :282

Dialect diversity

North Marquesan is spoken in the northern islands (Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, and Ua Huka), and South Marquesan in the southern islands (Hiva Oa, Tahuata, and Fatu Hiva). In Ua Huka, which was almost entirely depopulated in the 19th century and repopulated with people from both the Northern and Southern Marquesas, the language shares traits of both North Marquesan and South Marquesan. Comparative data on the various dialects of Marquesan can be found in the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia (Charpentier & François 2015). [3]

The most noticeable differences between the varieties are Northern Marquesan /k/ in some words where South Marquesan has /n/ or /ʔ/ (glottal stop), and /h/ in all words where South Marquesan has /f/.

The table below compares a selection of words in various dialectal varieties of Marquesan, according to the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia, [12] with their pronunciation in the IPA. Tahitian and Hawaiian are also added for comparison.

North MarquesanSouth Marquesan Hawaiian Tahitian
Nuku Hiva Ua Pou Ua Huka Hiva Oa Fatu Hiva Hawaii Tahiti
hello/kaːʔoha//kaːʔoha//kaːʔoha//kaːʔoha//kaːʔoha//aloha//ʔiaorana/
(/arofa/ 'love, compassion')
human being/ʔenana//ʔenana//ʔenana//ʔenata//ʔenata//kanaka//taʔata/
life/pohuʔe//pohuʔe//pohuʔe//pohoʔe//pohoʔe//ola//ora/
body/nino//nino//tino//tino//tino//kino//tino/
mouth/haha//haha//haha//fafa//fafa//waha//vaha/
head/upoko//upoko//upoko//upoʔo//upoʔo//poʔo//upoʔo/
to see/ʔite//kite//ʔite//ʔite//ʔite//ʔike//ʔite/
to speak/tekao//tekao//tekao//teʔao//teʔao//ʔoːlelo/
(/kaʔao/ 'to tell tales')
/parau/
dog/peto//peto//peto//nuhe//nuhe//ʔiːlio//ʔuːri/
louse/kutu//kutu//kutu//ʔutu//ʔutu//ʔuku//ʔutu/
yesterday/tinahi//nenahi//tinahi//tinahi//tinahi//nehinei//inaːnahi/
sky/ʔaki//ʔaki//ʔani//ʔani//ʔani//lani//raʔi/
moon/meama//meama//mahina//mahina//mahina//mahina//ʔaːvaʔe/
wind/metaki//metaki//metani//metani//metani//makani//mataʔi/
sea/tai//tai//tai//tai//tai//kai//miti/
(/tai/ 'sea, salt')
coral/puka//puka//puna//feʔeo//feʔeo//koʔa/
(/puna/ 'plaster, mortar')
/puʔa/
fish/ika//ika//ika//iʔa//iʔa//iʔa//iʔa/
octopus/heke//heke//heke//feʔe//feʔe//heʔe//feʔe/
island, land/henua//henua//henua//fenua//fenua//honua//fenua/
river/kaʔavai//kaʔavai//kaʔavai//kaʔavai//kaʔavai//kahawai//ʔaːnaːvai/
taro /taʔo//taʔo//taʔo//taʔo//taʔo//kalo//taro/
coconut/ʔehi//ʔehi//ʔehi//ʔeʔehi//ʔeʔehi//niu//haʔari/
house/haʔe//haʔe//haʔe//faʔe//faʔe//hale//fare/
man (male)/vahana//vahana//vahana//ʔahana//ʔahana//kaːne//taːne/
woman/vehine//vehine//vehine//vehine//vehine//wahine//vahine/
grandmother/tupunakui/
('grandparent mother')
/tupunakui/
('grandparent mother')
/tupunakui/
('grandparent mother')
/tupunavehine/
('grandparent woman')
/tupunavehine/
('grandparent woman')
/kupunawahine/
('grandparent woman')
/maːmaːruːʔau/
('mom old person')
chief, king/hakaʔiki//hakaʔiki//hakaʔiki//hakaʔiki//hakaʔiki//aliʔi//ariʔi/
traditional temple
precinct, marae
/meʔae//meʔae//meʔae//meʔae//paepae//heiau//marae/
you (singular)/ʔoe//koe//ʔoe//ʔoe//ʔoe//ʔoe//ʔoe/

The northern dialects fall roughly into four groups:

The southern dialects fall roughly into three groups:

North Marquesan exhibits some original characteristics. While some Polynesian languages maintained the velar nasal /ŋ/, many have lost the distinction between the nasals /ŋ/ and /n/, merging both into /n/. North Marquesan, like South Island Māori dialects of New Zealand, prefers /k/. Another feature is that, while some Polynesian languages replace *k with /ʔ/, North Marquesan has retained it. (Tahitian and formal Samoan have no /k/ whatsoever, and the /k/ in modern Hawaiian is pronounced either [k] or [t] and derives from Polynesian *t.)

The dialects of Ua Huka are often incorrectly classified as North Marquesan; they are instead transitional. While the island is in the northern Marquesas group, the dialects show more morphological and phonological affinities with South Marquesan. The North Marquesan dialects are sometimes considered two separate languages:[ citation needed ] North Marquesan and Tai Pi Marquesan, the latter being spoken in the valleys of the eastern third of the island of Nuku Hiva, in the ancient province of Tai Pi. Puka-Pukan, spoken in Puka-Puka and the Disappointment Islands in northeastern Tuamotu, is a dialect of South Marquesan, and should not be confused with the homonymous Pukapukan language spoken in Pukapuka, one of the Cook Islands.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coptic language</span> Latest stage of the Egyptian language

Coptic is an Afroasiatic extinct language. It is a group of closely related Egyptian dialects, representing the most recent developments of the Egyptian language, and historically spoken by the Copts, starting from the third century AD in Roman Egypt. Coptic was supplanted by Arabic as the primary spoken language of Egypt following the Arab conquest of Egypt and was slowly replaced over the centuries. Coptic has no native speakers today, although it remains in daily use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and of the Coptic Catholic Church. Innovations in grammar and phonology and the influx of Greek loanwords distinguish Coptic from earlier periods of the Egyptian language. It is written with the Coptic alphabet, a modified form of the Greek alphabet with seven additional letters borrowed from the Demotic Egyptian script.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Māori language</span> Polynesian language spoken in New Zealand

Māori is an Eastern Polynesian language and the language of the Māori people, the indigenous population of mainland New Zealand. A member of the Austronesian language family, it is related to Cook Islands Māori, Tuamotuan, and Tahitian. The Maori Language Act 1987 gave the language recognition as one of New Zealand's official languages. There are regional dialects of the Māori language. Prior to contact with Europeans, Māori lacked a written language or script. Written Māori now uses the Latin script, which was adopted and the spelling standardised by Northern Māori in collaboration with English Protestant clergy in the 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marquesas Islands</span> Archipelago in French Polynesia

The Marquesas Islands are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Ocean. Their highest point is the peak of Mount Oave on Ua Pou island, at 1,230 m (4,035 ft) above sea level.

Tahitian is a Polynesian language, spoken mainly on the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It belongs to the Eastern Polynesian group.

Rapa Nui or Rapanui, also known as Pascuan or Pascuense, is an Eastern Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. It is spoken on Easter Island, also known as Rapa Nui.

Pukapukan is a Polynesian language that developed in isolation on the island of Pukapuka in the northern group of the Cook Islands. As a "Samoic Outlier" language with strong links to western Polynesia, Pukapukan is not closely related to any other languages of the Cook Islands, but does manifest substantial borrowing from some East Polynesian source in antiquity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ua Pou</span> Island in French Polynesia

Ua Pou is the third largest of the Marquesas Islands, in French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean.

Vaeakau-Taumako is a Polynesian language spoken in some of the Reef Islands as well as in the Taumako Islands in the Temotu province of Solomon Islands.

Apma is the language of central Pentecost island in Vanuatu. Apma is an Oceanic language. Within Vanuatu it sits between North Vanuatu and Central Vanuatu languages, and combines features of both groups.

Roviana is a member of the North West Solomonic branch of Oceanic languages. It is spoken around Roviana and Vonavona lagoons at the north central New Georgia in the Solomon Islands. It has 10,000 first-language speakers and an additional 16,000 people mostly over 30 years old speak it as a second language. In the past, Roviana was widely used as a trade language and further used as a lingua franca, especially for church purposes in the Western Province, but now it is being replaced by the Solomon Islands Pijin. Published studies on Roviana include: Ray (1926), Waterhouse (1949) and Todd (1978) contain the syntax of Roviana. Corston-Oliver discuss ergativity in Roviana. Todd (2000) and Ross (1988) discuss the clause structure in Roviana. Schuelke (2020) discusses grammatical relations and syntactic ergativity in Roviana.

Ughele is an Oceanic language spoken by about 1200 people on Rendova Island, located in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands.

This article details the history of the Marquesas. The Marquesas Islands are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Ocean. The Marquesas Islands comprise one of the five administrative divisions of French Polynesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Index of French Polynesia–related articles</span>

This page list topics related to French Polynesia.

Bandial (Banjaal), or Eegima (Eegimaa), is a Jola language of the Casamance region of Senegal. The three dialects, Affiniam, Bandial proper, and Elun are divergent, on the border between dialects and distinct languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuku Hiva</span> Island in French Polynesia

Nuku Hiva is the largest of the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, an overseas country of France in the Pacific Ocean. It was formerly also known as Île Marchand and Madison Island.

Tamashek or Tamasheq is a variety of Tuareg, a Berber macro-language widely spoken by nomadic tribes across North Africa in Algeria, Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. Tamasheq is one of the three main varieties of Tuareg, the others being Tamajaq and Tamahaq.

Merei or Malmariv is an Oceanic language spoken in north central Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baluan-Pam language</span> Oceanic language of Manus Province, Papua New Guinea

Baluan-Pam is an Oceanic language of Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. It is spoken on Baluan Island and on nearby Pam Island. The number of speakers, according to the latest estimate based on the 2000 Census, is 2,000. Speakers on Baluan Island prefer to refer to their language with its native name Paluai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marquesan Dog</span> Extinct Polynesian dog breed

The Marquesan Dog or Marquesas Islands Dog is an extinct breed of dog from the Marquesas Islands. Similar to other strains of Polynesian dogs, it was introduced to the Marquesas by the ancestors of the Polynesian people during their migrations. Serving as tribal totems and religious symbols, they were sometimes consumed as meat although less frequently than in other parts of the Pacific because of their scarcity. These native dogs are thought to have become extinct before the arrival of Europeans, who did not record their presence on the islands. Petroglyphic representations of dogs and the archaeological remains of dog bones and burials are the only evidence that the breed ever existed. Modern dog populations on the island are the descendants of foreign breeds later reintroduced in the 19th century as companions for European settlers.

References

  1. North Marquesan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    South Marquesan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. See Charpentier & François (2015).
  3. 1 2 For regular sound correspondences between Marquesan dialects and other Polynesian languages, see Charpentier & François (2015), p.93.
  4. Marquesan Pronunciation Guide
  5. Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 38
  6. 1 2 Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 40
  7. 1 2 Mutu & Teìkitutoua (2002). Ùa Pou: Aspects of a Marquesan dialect. p. 72.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Cablitz 2006.
  9. Krupa, Viktor (2005). "Syntax of Verbal Nouns in Marquesan". Oceanic Linguistics. 44 (2): 505–516. doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0038. JSTOR   3623350. S2CID   145204950.
  10. 1 2 Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002), p. 88
  11. Mutu & Teìkitutoua (2002). Ùa Pou: Aspects of a Marquesan dialect. p. 94.
  12. The authors of the Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia judged the variety spoken on Tahuata to be too similar to Hiva Oa's to form a separate survey point.

Further reading