Prunus

Last updated

Prunus
Temporal range: Eocene - recent [1]
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Possible Albian record [2]
Fruhling bluhender Kirschenbaum.jpg
Prunus cerasus (sour cherry) in bloom
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Amygdaloideae
Tribe: Amygdaleae
Genus: Prunus
L.
Type species
P. domestica
L.
Synonyms

Prunus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs from the family Rosaceae, which includes plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots and almonds (collectively stonefruit). The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, [4] being native to the temperate regions of North America, the neotropics of South America, and temperate and tropical regions of Eurasia and Africa, [5] There are about 340 accepted species as of March 2024. [4] [6]

Contents

Many members of the genus are widely cultivated for their sweet, fleshy fruit and for decorative purposes of their flowers. Prunus fruit are drupes, or stone fruits. The fleshy mesocarp surrounding the endocarp is edible while the endocarp itself forms a hard, inedible shell called the pyrena ("stone" or "pit"). [7] This shell encloses the seed (or "kernel"), which is edible in some species (such as sweet almonds), but poisonous in many others (such as apricot kernels). Besides being eaten off the hand, most Prunus fruit are also commonly used in processing, such as jam production, canning, drying, and the seeds for roasting. [8]

Description

Members of the genus are either deciduous or evergreen. A few species have spiny stems. The leaves are simple, alternate, usually lanceolate, unlobed, and often with nectaries on the leaf stalk along with stipules. The flowers are usually white to pink, sometimes red, with five petals and five sepals. Numerous stamens are present. Flowers are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or sometimes more on racemes. The fruit is a fleshy drupe (a "prune") with a single relatively large, hard-coated seed (a "stone"). [9]

Taxonomy

Within the rose family Rosaceae, it was traditionally placed as a subfamily, the Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Prunoideae"), but was sometimes placed in its own family, the Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae). More recently, Prunus is thought to have evolved from within a much larger clade now called subfamily Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Spiraeoideae"). [3]

Classification

Evolutionary history

The oldest fossils confirmed to belong to Prunus date to the Eocene, and are found across the Northern Hemisphere. Older potential Late Cretaceous records are unconfirmed. [10]

The earliest known fossil Prunus specimens are wood, drupe, seed, and a leaf from the middle Eocene of the Princeton Chert of British Columbia, Canada. [11] Using the known age as calibration data, a partial phylogeny of some of the Rosaceae from a number of nucleotide sequences was reconstructed. [12] Prunus and its sister clade Maloideae (apple subfamily) has been suggested to have diverged 44.3  million years ago which is within the Lutetian, or older middle Eocene. [a] Stockey and Wehr report: "The Eocene was a time of rapid evolution and diversification in Angiosperm families such as the Rosaceae ...." [11] The oldest fossil species is Prunus cathybrownae from the Klondike Mountain Formation. [13]

The Princeton finds are among a large number of angiosperm fossils from the Okanagan Highlands dating to the late early and middle Eocene. Crataegus is found at three locations: the McAbee Fossil Beds, British Columbia; the Klondike Mountain Formation around Republic, Washington, and the Allenby Formation around Princeton, British Columbia, while Prunus is found at those locations plus the Coldwater Beds of Quilchena, British Columbia and Chu Chua Formation around Chu Chua, British Columbia. A review of research on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands [14] reported that the Rosaceae were more diverse at higher altitudes. The Okanagan highlands formations date to as early as 52 mya, but the (approximate) 44.3 mya date[ citation needed ] might still apply. The authors state that "the McAbee flora records a diverse early middle Eocene angiosperm-dominated forest." [14] : 165 

Linnean classification

In 1737, Carl Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern Prunus—Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus, and Padus—but simplified it to Amygdalus and Prunus in 1758. [15] Since then, the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as all the species clearly are more closely related. Liberty Hyde Bailey said: "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species." [16]

Traditional classification

Historical treatments break the genus into several different genera, but this segregation is not currently widely recognised other than at the subgeneric rank. The ITIS recognises just the single genus Prunus, with an open list of species, [b] all of which are given at List of Prunus species. [c]

One treatment of the subgenera derives from the work of Alfred Rehder in 1940. Rehder hypothesized five subgenera: Amygdalus, Prunus, Cerasus, Padus, and Laurocerasus. [17] To them C. Ingram added Lithocerasus. [18] The six subgenera are described as follows:

  • Subgenus Amygdalus, almonds and peaches: axillary buds in threes (vegetative bud central, two flower buds to sides); flowers in early spring, sessile or nearly so, not on leafed shoots; fruit with a groove along one side; stone deeply grooved; type species: Prunus dulcis (almond)
  • Subgenus Prunus, plums and apricots: axillary buds solitary; flowers in early spring stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit with a groove along one side, stone rough; type species: Prunus domestica (plum)
  • Subgenus Cerasus, true cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus cerasus (sour cherry)
  • Subgenus Lithocerasus, bush cherries: axillary buds in threes; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus pumila (sand cherry)
  • Subgenus Padus, bird cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in late spring in racemes on leafy shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus padus (European bird cherry), now known to be polyphyletic [19]
  • Subgenus Laurocerasus, cherry laurels: mostly evergreen (all the other subgenera are deciduous); axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in racemes, not on leafed shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus laurocerasus (European cherry-laurel)

Phylogenetic classification

An extensive phylogenetic study based on different chloroplast and nuclear sequences divides Prunus into three subgenera: [20]

Species

The lists below are incomplete, but include most of the better-known species.[ by whom? ][ citation needed ]

Afro-Eurasian species

Species found in the Americas

Etymology

The Online Etymology Dictionary presents the customary derivations of plum [21] and prune [22] from Latin prūnum, [23] the plum fruit. The tree is prūnus; [24] and Pliny uses prūnus silvestris to mean the blackthorn. The word is not native Latin, but is a loan from Greek προῦνον (prounon), which is a variant of προῦμνον (proumnon), [25] origin unknown. The tree is προύμνη (proumnē). [26] Most dictionaries follow Hoffman, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen, in making some form of the word a loan from a pre-Greek language of Asia Minor, related to Phrygian.

The first use of Prunus as a genus name was by Carl Linnaeus in Hortus Cliffortianus of 1737, [27] which went on to become Species Plantarum .

Pests and diseases

Cherries are prone to gummosis. Gummosis on an ornamental cherry.JPG
Cherries are prone to gummosis.

Various Prunus species are winter hosts of the Damson-hop aphid, Phorodon humuli , which is destructive to hops Humulus lupulus just at the time of their maturity, [28] so plum trees should not be grown in the vicinity of hop fields.

Corking is the drying or withering of fruit tissue. [29] In stone fruit, it is often caused by a lack of boron and/or calcium. [30]

Gummosis is a nonspecific condition of stone fruits (peach, nectarine, plum, and cherry) in which gum is exuded and deposited on the bark of trees. Gum is produced in response to any type of wound – insect, mechanical injury, or disease. [31]

Apiosporina morbosa is a major fungal disease in the Northern Americas, with many urban centres running black knot fungus management programs. [32] This disease is best managed by physical removal of knot-bearing branches to prevent spore spread and immediate disposal of infected tissue. [32] Chemical treatment is not largely effective, as trees can easily be re-infected by neighbouring knots.

Laetiporus gilbertsoni (commonly sulfur shelf and chicken of the woods), is a serious cubic brown rot parasite which attacks certain species of decorative red-leaf plum trees in the genus Prunus on the Pacific coast of North America. [33] [34]

Cultivation

The development sequence of a nectarine (P. persica) over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg
The development sequence of a nectarine (P. persica) over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer

The genus Prunus includes the almond, the nectarine and peach, several species of apricots, cherries, and plums, all of which have cultivars developed for commercial fruit and nut production. The almond is not a true nut; the edible part is the seed. Other species are occasionally cultivated or used for their seed and fruit.

A number of species, hybrids, and cultivars are grown as ornamental plants, usually for their profusion of flowers, sometimes for ornamental foliage and shape, and occasionally for their bark.

Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many Prunus species have been introduced to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalised.

The Tree of 40 Fruit has 40 varieties grafted on to one rootstock. [35] [36]

Species such as blackthorn ( Prunus spinosa ), are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes.

The wood of some species (notably black cherry) is prized as a furniture and cabinetry timber, especially in North America.

Many species produce an aromatic gum from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. Other minor uses include dye production.

Pygeum, a herbal remedy containing extracts from the bark of Prunus africana , is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Prunus species are food plants for the larvae of many Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths).

Prunus species are included in the Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone. [37]

Ornamental Prunus

Ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called "flowering cherries" (including sakura, the Japanese flowering cherries).

Toxicity

Many species are cyanogenic; that is, they contain compounds called cyanogenic glucosides, notably amygdalin, which, on hydrolysis, yield hydrogen cyanide. [38] Although the fruits of some may be edible by humans and livestock (in addition to the ubiquitous fructivory of birds), seeds, leaves and other parts may be toxic, some highly so. [39] The plants contain no more than trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide, but on decomposition after crushing and exposure to air or on digestion, poisonous amounts may be generated. The trace amounts may give a characteristic taste ("bitter almond") with increasing bitterness in larger quantities, less tolerable to people than to birds, which habitually feed on specific fruits.

Benefits to human health

People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals that are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits of Prunus often contain many phytochemicals and antioxidants. [8] [40] [41] These compounds have properties that have been linked to preventing different diseases and disorders. [40] [42] [43] Research suggests that the consumption of these fruits reduces the risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and other age-related declines. [42] [43] Many factors can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genus Prunus, including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations, and postharvest management. [8]

Cherries

Cherries contain many different phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, which are indicators of being rich in antioxidants. [44] [42] Recent research has linked the phenolic compounds of the sweet cherry ( Prunus avium ) with antitumor properties. [45]

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) include superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen; they are the byproducts of metabolism. High levels of ROS lead to oxidative stress, which causes damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The oxidative damage results in cell death, which ultimately leads to numerous diseases and disorders. Antioxidants act as a defense mechanism against the oxidative stress. [42] [43] They are used to remove the free radicals in a living system that are generated as ROS. [46] [42] Some of those antioxidants include gutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. [46] The antioxidants present in cherry extracts act as inhibitors of the free radicals. [40] However, the DNA and proteins can be damaged when an imbalance occurs in the level of free radicals and the antioxidants. When not enough antioxidants are available to remove the free radicals, many diseases can occur, such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, etc. [43] Recent studies have shown that using natural antioxidants as a supplement in chemotherapy can decrease the amount of oxidative damage. Some of these natural antioxidants include vitamin C, tocopherol, and epigallocatechin gallate; they can be found in certain cherry extracts. [46]

Almonds

Similar to cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, almonds are also rich in phenolics. Almonds have a high oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), which is another indicator of being rich in antioxidants. [8] [47] As stated before, high levels of free radicals are harmful, thus having the capacity to absorb those radicals is greatly beneficial. The bioactive compounds, polyphenols and anthocyanins, found in berries and cherries are also present in almonds. [48] [47] Almonds also contain nonflavonoid and flavonoid compounds, which contribute to their antioxidant properties. [8] [49] [47] Flavonoids are a group of structurally related compounds that are arranged in a specific manner and can be found in all vascular plants on land. They also contribute to the antioxidant properties of almonds. [49] Some of the nonflavonoid compounds present are protocatechuic, vanillic, and p-hydroxybenzoic acids. Flavonoid compounds that can be found in the skin of the almond are flavanols, dihydroflavonols, and flavanones. [49] [47]

Plums

Of all of the different species of stone fruits, plums are the richest in antioxidants and phenolic compounds. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) varies within each fruit, but in plums, TAC is much higher in the skin than in the flesh of the fruit. [8] [50] [41]

Apricots

Apricots are high in carotenoids, which play a key role in light absorption during development. Carotenoids are the pigments that give the pulp and peel of apricots and other Prunus fruits their yellow and orange colors. Moreover, it is an essential precursor for vitamin A, which is especially important for vision and the immune system in humans. [8] [51] Moreover, these fruits are quite rich in phenolic substances, including catechin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid. [51] [52]

Peaches and nectarines

Similar to the plum, peaches and nectarines also have higher TAC in the skin than in the flesh. [8] [50] They also contain moderate levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid. [53] [50] [41] Peaches and nectarines are orange and yellow in color, which can be attributed to the carotenoids present. [8]

Notes

  1. ↑ A date of 76 mya is given for Rosaceae, which is within the late Cretaceous.
  2. ↑ Do a search in the ITIS database on the scientific name Prunus for its current list.
  3. ↑ Other species appear, as well, which for whatever reasons are not yet in ITIS.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rosaceae</span> Rose family of flowering plants

Rosaceae, the rose family, is a family of flowering plants that includes 4,828 known species in 91 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peach</span> Type of fruit tree, or its fruit

The peach is a deciduous tree first domesticated and cultivated in China. It bears edible juicy fruits with various characteristics, most called peaches and the glossy-skinned, non-fuzzy varieties called nectarines. Peaches and nectarines are the same species, though they are regarded commercially as different fruits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amygdaloideae</span> Subfamily of flowering plants

Amygdaloideae is a subfamily within the flowering plant family Rosaceae. It was formerly considered by some authors to be separate from Rosaceae, and the family names Prunaceae and Amygdalaceae have been used. Reanalysis from 2007 has shown that the previous definition of subfamily Spiraeoideae was paraphyletic. To solve this problem, a larger subfamily was defined that includes the former Amygdaloideae, Spiraeoideae, and Maloideae. This subfamily, however, is to be called Amygdaloideae rather than Spiraeoideae under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants as updated in 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cherry</span> Fruit of some plants of the genus Prunus

A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy drupe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apricot</span> Cultivated fruit

An apricot is a fruit, or the tree that bears the fruit, of several species in the genus Prunus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drupe</span> Fleshy fruit with hard inner layer (endocarp or stone) surrounding the seed

In botany, a drupe is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part surrounds a single shell of hardened endocarp with a seed (kernel) inside. Drupes do not split open to release the seed, i.e., they are indehiscent. These fruits usually develop from a single carpel, and mostly from flowers with superior ovaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fruit tree</span> Tree which bears fruit

A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by animals and humans.— All trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term "fruit tree" is limited to those that provide fruit for human food. Types of fruits are described and defined elsewhere, but would include "fruit" in a culinary sense, as well as some nut-bearing trees, such as walnuts.

<i>Prunus <span style="font-style:normal;">subg.</span> Padus</i> Subgenus of plants

Prunus subg. Padus is a subgenus of Prunus, characterised by having racemose inflorescences. Padus was originally a distinct genus, but genetic and morphological studies have shown that Padus is polyphyletic. It has been proposed that all the racemose taxa within Prunus are incorporated into a broad-sense Prunus subg. Padus.

<i>Prunus serotina</i> Species of tree

Prunus serotina, commonly called black cherry, wild black cherry, rum cherry, or mountain black cherry, is a deciduous tree or shrub in the rose family Rosaceae. Despite its common names, it is not very closely related to commonly cultivated cherries. It is found in the Americas.

<i>Prunus salicina</i> Species of tree

Prunus salicina, commonly called the Japanese plum or Chinese plum, is a small deciduous tree native to China, Taiwan and Southeast Asia. It is an introduced species in Korea, Japan, the United States, and Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plum pox</span> Viral plant disease

Plum pox, also known as sharka, is the most devastating viral disease of stone fruit from the genus Prunus. The disease is caused by the plum pox virus (PPV), and the different strains may infect a variety of stone fruit species including peaches, apricots, plums, nectarine, almonds, and sweet and tart cherries. Wild and ornamental species of Prunus may also become infected by some strains of the virus.

<i>Prunus necrotic ringspot virus</i> Species of virus

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) is a plant pathogenic virus causing ring spot diseases affecting species of the genus Prunus, as well as other species such as rose and hops. PNRSV is found worldwide due to easy transmission through plant propagation methods and infected seed. The virus is in the family Bromoviridae and genus Ilarvirus. Synonyms of PNRSV include European plum line pattern virus, hop B virus, hop C virus, plum line pattern virus, sour cherry necrotic ringspot virus, and peach ringspot virus.

<i>Prunus tenella</i> Species of shrub

Prunus tenella, the dwarf Russian almond, is a species of deciduous shrub in the genus Prunus, native to steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Siberia, as well as dry open sites of Caucasus, Western and Central Asia.

<i>Taphrina pruni</i> Species of fungus

Taphrina pruni is a fungal plant pathogen of blackthorn that causes the pocket or bladder plum gall, a chemically induced distortion of the fruit (sloes), producing swollen on one side, otherwise deformed and flattened fruit gall without a stone. The twigs on infected plants may also be deformed with small strap-shaped leaves.

<i>Prunus <span style="font-style:normal;">subg.</span> Prunus</i> Subgenus of plants

Prunus subg. Prunus is a subgenus of Prunus. This subgenus includes plums, apricots and bush cherries. Some species conventionally included in Prunus subg. Amygdalus are clustered with plum/apricot species according to molecular phylogenetic studies. Shi et al. (2013) has incorporated subg. Amygdalus into subg. Prunus, thereby including almonds and peaches in this subgenus. The species in this subgenus have solitary flowers or 2–3 in a fascicle.

<i>Prunus tianshanica</i> Species of tree

Prunus tianshanica, the Tianshan cherry, is a species of cherry native to the Tianshan Mountains of Central Asia, preferring to grow at 800-1000 m.

<i>Prunus <span style="font-style:normal;">subg.</span> Cerasus</i> Subgenus of trees

Prunus subg. Cerasus is a subgenus of Prunus. Species of the subgenus have a single winter bud per axil. The flowers are usually in small corymbs or umbels of several together, but some species have short racemes. The fruit is a drupe and has no obvious groove along the side. The subgenus is native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with two species in North America, four in Europe, two in North Africa, and the remainder in Asia.

<i>Prunus <span style="font-style:normal;">sect.</span> Microcerasus</i> Group of trees

Prunus sect. Microcerasus is a section of Prunus. It used to be included in Prunus subg. Cerasus, but phylogenetic research indicates it belongs to Prunus subg. Prunus. It differs from Prunus subg. Cerasus by having three winter buds per axil.

<i>Prunus <span style="font-style:normal;">sect.</span> Prunus</i> Section of plants

Prunus sect. Prunus is a section of Prunus subg. Prunus. It contains species of Eurasian plum.

Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni is a species of phytoplasma in the class Mollicutes, a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The specific epithet pruni means "living on Prunus", emphasizing the fact that the phytoplasma is a parasite of various Prunus species, otherwise known as stone fruits. The phytoplasma is commonly called the X-disease phytoplasma.

References

  1. ↑ "Rosales". www.mobot.org. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  2. ↑ Peppe, Daniel J.; Hickey, Leo J.; Miller, Ian M.; Green, Walton A. (October 2008), "A Morphotype Catalogue, Floristic Analysis and Stratigraphic Description of the Aspen Shale Flora(Cretaceous–Albian) of Southwestern Wyoming", Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, 49 (2): 181–208, doi:10.3374/0079-032X-49.2.181, ISSN   0079-032X
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Potter, D.; Eriksson, T.; Evans, R.C.; Oh, S.; Smedmark, J.E.E.; Morgan, D.R.; Kerr, M.; Robertson, K.R.; Arsenault, M.; Dickinson, T.A.; Campbell, C.S. (2007). "Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1–2): 5–43. Bibcode:2007PSyEv.266....5P. doi:10.1007/s00606-007-0539-9. S2CID   16578516. [Referring to the subfamily by the name "Spiraeoideae"]
  4. 1 2 "Prunus L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  5. ↑ Chin, S.W.; Shaw, J.; Haberle, R.; Wen, J.; Potter, R. (July 2014). "Diversification of almonds, peaches, plums and cherries – Molecular systematics and biogeographic history of Prunus (Rosaceae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 76: 34–48. Bibcode:2014MolPE..76...34C. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.02.024. PMID   24631854.
  6. ↑ Niklas, Karl J. (1997). The evolutionary biology of plants. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0226580838. OCLC   35262271.
  7. ↑ Velasco, Dianne; Hough, Josh; Aradhya, Mallikarjuna; Ross-Ibarra, Jeffrey (1 December 2016). "Evolutionary Genomics of Peach and Almond Domestication". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 6 (12): 3985–3993. doi:10.1534/g3.116.032672. ISSN   2160-1836. PMC   5144968 . PMID   27707802.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Terry, Leon A. (2011). Health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetables. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. ISBN   9781845935283. OCLC   697808315.
  9. ↑ Cullen, J.; et al., eds. (1995). European Garden Flora. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521420952.
  10. ↑ Li, Ya; Smith, Thierry; Liu, Chang-Jiang; Awasthi, Nilamber; Yang, Jian; Wang, Yu-Fei; Li, Cheng-Sen (April 2011). "Endocarps of Prunus (Rosaceae: Prunoideae) from the early Eocene of Wutu, Shandong Province, China". Taxon. 60 (2): 555–564. doi:10.1002/tax.602021.
  11. 1 2 Stockey, Ruth A.; Wehr, Wesley C. (1996). "Flowering Plants in and around Eocene Lakes of the Interior". In Ludvigson, Rolf (ed.). Life in Stone: a Natural History of British Columbia's Fossils. Vancouver: UBCPress. pp. 234, 241, 245. ISBN   978-0-7748-0578-0.
  12. ↑ Oh, Sang-Hun; Potter, Daniel (2005). "Molecular phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of tribe Neillieae (Rosaceae) using DNA sequences of cpDNA, rDNA, and LEAFY1". American Journal of Botany. 92 (1): 179–192. doi:10.3732/ajb.92.1.179. PMID   21652396.
  13. ↑ Benedict, John C.; DeVore, Melanie L.; Pigg, Kathleen B. (May 2011). "Prunus and Oemleria (Rosaceae) Flowers from the Late Early Eocene Republic Flora of Northeastern Washington State, U.S.A." International Journal of Plant Sciences. 172 (7): 948–958. doi:10.1086/660880. ISSN   1058-5893.
  14. 1 2 Dillhoff, Richard M.; Leopold, Estella B.; Manchester, Steven R. (February 2005). "The McAbee flora of British Columbia and its relation to the Early-Middle Eocene Okanagan Highlands flora of the Pacific Northwest" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 42 (2): 151–166. Bibcode:2005CaJES..42..151D. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.452.8755 . doi:10.1139/e04-084. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2007.
  15. ↑ Linnaeus Carolus (1830). Sprengel, Curtius (ed.). Genera Plantarum Editio Nona [Plant Categories, Ninth Edition]. Gottingen: Dieterich. pp. 402–403.
  16. ↑ Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1898). Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits. New York: The MacMillan Company. p.  181.
  17. ↑ Lee, Sangtae; Wen, Jun (2001). "A phylogenetic analysis of Prunus and the Amygdaloideae (Rosaceae) using ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA". American Journal of Botany. 88 (1): 150–160. doi: 10.2307/2657135 . JSTOR   2657135. PMID   11159135.
  18. ↑ Okie, William (July 2003). "Stone Fruits". In Janick, J.; Paulii, R.E. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Fruits and Nuts. C A B Intl (published 2008).
  19. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Lin; Wen, Jun; Nie, Ze-Long; Johnson, Gabriel; Liang, Zong-Suo; Chang, Zhao-Yang (14 December 2012). "Polyphyly of the Padus group of Prunus (Rosaceae) and the evolution of biogeographic disjunctions between eastern Asia and eastern North America". Journal of Plant Research. 126 (3): 351–361. doi:10.1007/s10265-012-0535-1. PMID   23239308. S2CID   5991106.
  20. ↑ Shi, Shuo; Li, Jinlu; Sun, Jiahui; Yu, Jing; Zhou, Shiliang (2013). "Phylogeny and classification of Prunus sensu lato (Rosaceae)". Journal of Integrative Plant Biology. 55 (11): 1069–1079. doi:10.1111/jipb.12095. ISSN   1744-7909. PMID   23945216.
  21. ↑ "plum". Online Etymological Dictionary.
  22. ↑ "prune". Online Etymological Dictionary.
  23. ↑ "prūnum". Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  24. ↑ "prūnus". Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  25. ↑ "προῦμνον". Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
  26. ↑ "προύμνη". Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
  27. ↑ Linnaeus, Carolus (1737). Hortus Cliffortianus. Amsterdam. p.  186. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.690 . Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  28. ↑ "Damson-hop aphid, Phorodon humuli". Rothamstead Insect Survey. Rothamstead Research. Archived from the original on 26 June 2012.
  29. ↑ Benson, N.R.; Woodbridge, C.G.; Bartram, R.D. (1994). "Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits" (PDF). Pacific Northwest Extension Publications. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  30. ↑ Day, Kevin (27 January 1999). "Peach and Nectarine Cork Spot:A Review of the 1998 Season" (PDF). University of California Cooperative Extension – Tulare County. University of California, Davis. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  31. ↑ Hartman, John; Bachi, Paul (November 2005). "Gummosis and Perennial Canker of Stone Fruits" (PDF). Plant Pathology. University of Kentucky. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  32. 1 2 "Black knot". www.alberta.ca. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  33. ↑ "Chicken of the Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus species complex)" . Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  34. ↑ "Yellow tree fungus on very old plum tree #246036". ask2.extension.org. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  35. ↑ "The Gift of Graft: New York Artist's Tree To Grow 40 Kinds of Fruit". NPR . 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  36. ↑ "This tree produces 40 different types of fruit". ScienceAlert. 21 July 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  37. ↑ Chladil, Mark; Sheridan, Jennifer (2006). "Fire retardant garden plants for the urban fringe and rural areas" (PDF). www.fire.tas.gov.au. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  38. ↑ Armstrong, E. Frankland (1913). "Glucosides". In Davis, W.A.; Sadtler, Samuel S. (eds.). Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis. Vol. VII (Fourth ed.). Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co. p.  102 . Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  39. ↑ Cook, Laurence Martin; Callow, Robert S. (1999). Genetic and evolutionary diversity: the sport of nature (2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. p. 135.
  40. 1 2 3 Nile, Shivraj Hariram; Park, Se Won (1 February 2014). "Edible berries: Bioactive components and their effect on human health". Nutrition. 30 (2): 134–144. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2013.04.007. ISSN   0899-9007. PMID   24012283.
  41. 1 2 3 Cevallos-Casals, Bolívar A.; Byrne, David; Okie, William R.; Cisneros-Zevallos, Luis (1 May 2006). "Selecting new peach and plum genotypes rich in phenolic compounds and enhanced functional properties". Food Chemistry. 96 (2): 273–280. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.02.032. ISSN   0308-8146.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 Liu, Rui Hai (1 June 2013). "Dietary Bioactive Compounds and Their Health Implications". Journal of Food Science. 78 (s1): A18 –A25. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12101 . ISSN   1750-3841. PMID   23789932.
  43. 1 2 3 4 Wang, Shiow Y.; Jiao, Hongjun (2000). "Scavenging Capacity of Berry Crops on Superoxide Radicals, Hydrogen Peroxide, Hydroxyl Radicals, and Singlet Oxygen". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48 (11): 5677–5684. doi:10.1021/jf000766i. PMID   11087538.
  44. ↑ Usenik, Valentina; Fabčič, Jerneja; Štampar, Franci (1 March 2008). "Sugars, organic acids, phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.)". Food Chemistry. 107 (1): 185–192. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.08.004. ISSN   0308-8146.
  45. ↑ Bastos, Claudete; Barros, Lillian; Dueñas, Montserrat; Calhelha, Ricardo C.; Queiroz, Maria João R.P.; Santos-Buelga, Celestino; Ferreira, Isabel C.F.R. (15 April 2015). "Chemical characterisation and bioactive properties of Prunus avium L.: The widely studied fruits and the unexplored stems". Food Chemistry. 173: 1045–1053. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.145. hdl: 1822/39810 . ISSN   0308-8146. PMID   25466123.
  46. 1 2 3 Lee, Bo-Bae; Cha, Mi-Ran; Kim, Soo-Yeon; Park, Eunju; Park, Hae-Ryong; Lee, Seung-Cheol (1 June 2007). "Antioxidative and Anticancer Activity of Extracts of Cherry (Prunus serrulata var. spontanea) Blossoms". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 62 (2): 79–84. doi:10.1007/s11130-007-0045-9. ISSN   0921-9668. PMID   17577669. S2CID   19550239.
  47. 1 2 3 4 Wijeratne, Subhashinee S. K.; Amarowicz, Ryszard; Shahidi, Fereidoon (1 March 2006). "Antioxidant activity of almonds and their by-products in food model systems". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 83 (3): 223. doi:10.1007/s11746-006-1197-8. ISSN   0003-021X. S2CID   83628789.
  48. ↑ De Souza, Vanessa Rios; Pereira, Patrícia Aparecida Pimenta; Da Silva, Thais Lomônaco Teodoro; De Oliveira Lima, Luiz Carlos; Pio, Rafael; Queiroz, Fabiana (1 August 2014). "Determination of the bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity and chemical composition of Brazilian blackberry, red raspberry, strawberry, blueberry and sweet cherry fruits". Food Chemistry. 156: 362–368. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.125. ISSN   0308-8146. PMID   24629981.
  49. 1 2 3 Monagas, Maria; Garrido, Ignacio; Lebrón-Aguilar, Rosa; Bartolome, Begoña; Gómez-Cordovés, Carmen (2007). "Almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb) Skins as a Potential Source of Bioactive Polyphenols". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55 (21): 8498–8507. doi:10.1021/jf071780z. PMID   17867638.
  50. 1 2 3 Gil, María I.; Tomás-Barberán, Francisco A.; Hess-Pierce, Betty; Kader, Adel A. (2002). "Antioxidant Capacities, Phenolic Compounds, Carotenoids, and Vitamin C Contents of Nectarine, Peach, and Plum Cultivars from California". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (17): 4976–4982. doi:10.1021/jf020136b. PMID   12166993.
  51. 1 2 Hegedú´s, Attila; Engel, Rita; Abrankó, László; Balogh, Emó´ke; Blázovics, Anna; Hermán, Rita; Halász, Júlia; Ercisli, Sezai; Pedryc, Andrzej (1 November 2010). "Antioxidant and Antiradical Capacities in Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) Fruits: Variations from Genotypes, Years, and Analytical Methods". Journal of Food Science. 75 (9): C722 –C730. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01826.x. ISSN   1750-3841. PMID   21535583.
  52. ↑ Sochor, Jiri; Zitka, Ondrej; Skutkova, Helena; Pavlik, Dusan; Babula, Petr; Krska, Boris; Horna, Ales; Adam, Vojtech; Provaznik, Ivo (7 September 2010). "Content of Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity in Fruits of Apricot Genotypes". Molecules. 15 (9): 6285–6305. doi: 10.3390/molecules15096285 . PMC   6257765 . PMID   20877223.
  53. ↑ Legua, Pilar; Hernández, Francisca; Díaz-Mula, Huertas M.; Valero, Daniel; Serrano, María (2011). "Quality, Bioactive Compounds, and Antioxidant Activity of New Flat-Type Peach and Nectarine Cultivars: A Comparative Study". Journal of Food Science. 76 (5): C729 –C735. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02165.x. PMID   22417419.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.