Mushika dynasty, also spelled Mushaka, also Eli or Ezhi,[1] was a minor dynastic power that held sway over the region in and around Mount Ezhi (Ezhimala, in present-day Kannur district), northern Kerala, south India, from the early historic period up to the medieval period.[1][2]
The Ezhimala polity evolved into a monarchical state (known as "Kolla-desham") in the early medieval period and soon came under the influence of the neighboring Chera kingdom.[9][10][11] The Ezhimala or Mushika rulers are recorded to have supported the Cheras in their conflicts with the CholaEmpire.[12] Chola records mention the defeat of Kollam and the fall of its ruler, while another inscription confirms the presence of Chola soldiery in north Kerala in the early 11th century.[13][14] After the decline of the Chera state, the kingdom endured as "Kolathunad" in the Kannur-Kasaragod region.[6] The Mushaka Vamsa Kavya, a dynastic chronicle composed in the 11th century by poet Athula, describes the history of the Mushika lineage.[15][16]
The economies of the early historic Ezhimala polity and the medieval Mushika state are thought to have depended largely on the Indian Ocean spice trade — particularly in pepper, cardamom, and other hill produce — while conventional agriculture (wet-rice cultivation) played a lesser role.[11]
Etymology
The term "Mushika" or "Mushaka" Parvata is the Sanskrit translation of the ancient Tamil name "Ezhimalai" (or the Ezhil Kunram).[4][6] It was later mispronounced as "Elimala", which came to mean "the Mountain of the Rats".[6][17] The term "Mushika" also referred to the "Vaka" tree (Albizia lebbeck or Acacia sirissa), which was considered sacred by the rulers of Ezhimala.[18]
Ezhimala hill (or the Ezhil Kunram) is described in Mushaka Vamsa Kavya as "Mushaka Parvata".[16] The early historic fort of the Mushikas, located beneath Ettikulam Fort, is now protected by Department of Archaeology, Kerala.[19]
Early historic Ezhimala rulers
Ezhimala Hill
The ancient ruling family of Ezhimala appears to have existed in northern Kerala at least from the early historic (pre-Pallava) period.[20]Ancient Tamil poems (the Sangam Literature) describe the polity of Ezhimalai (also "Ezhil-malai"), situated on the northern edge of Tamilakam (the Tamil country) on its western (Malabar) coast.[21]
The rulers of Ezhimalai were among the most prominent hill chieftains of ancient Kerala. [3] The "Muvan" chieftain mentioned in early Tamil poems — described as an adversary of the early Chera rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala — is identified with the Muvan ruler of Ezhimalai.[6] The early historic Ezhimala clan maintained matrimonial alliances with the Chera, Pandya and, Chola families.[22] The family was also related to that of the rulers of Kantiramala.[3]
According to the Sangam poems, the port of "Naravu" was located within the territory of Ezhimalai (Akam, 97).[6] The Mahabharata, the Sanskrit epic poem of ancient India, also mentions the Mushikas as one of the kingdoms of the deep south, grouping them alongside the Keralas, Pandyas, and Cholas.[23]
Ezhimala Nannan
Early Tamil tradition (the Sangam poems) contains repeated references to several rulers of Ezhimala ("the Ezhil Kunram") bearing the name or title "Nannan".[5][6][24] These are attested in collections such as the Akananuru, Purananuru, Natrinai, Pathitruppathu, and Kurunthokai.[6] According to these poems, Nannan was the ruler of Ezhimalai ("the Ezhil Kunram"), situated on the north-western edge of the Tamil country.[3][25] He is also notably described as a hunter chieftain of the "vetar" descent group ("vetar-ko-man")[3] and is portrayed as a formidable adversary of the early (pre-Pallava) Chera rulers of western Tamil Nadu/central Kerala.[6] The Vaka tree is mentioned as the sacred tutelary tree of Ezhimala Nannan.[25] Nannan is perhaps to be identified with "Nandana", the ancient Ezhimala ruler referred to in the medieval poem Mushaka Vamsa.[18]
Madayi Fort remainsMadayi ParaInscription of Tagadur Adigan or Adigaiman ruler (the Satiyaputra) Neduman Anji
Nannan (fl. c. 180 AD) is described as the ruler of "Pazhi, near the Ezhil Hill" and "Param" by poet Paranar (Akam, 142 and 152).[5] He is also reported as the master of the Ezhil Hill and Puzhinadu country, and certain "Viyalur".[26] It is reported that Nannan was renowned for his gold ornaments and gilded chariots.[18]
Nannan was a companion of the Ay ruler (south Kerala) Eyinan.[5] Poems 351 and 396 of the Purananuru describe Nannan and Eyinan as relatives and as extremely close friends. Their relationship was so intimate that Nannan renamed the "Pirampu hills" in his country as "Ay-pirampu".[27][28]
In the battle of Pazhi, the warriors of Nannan, led by certain Njimili (or Minjili; the master of Param), defeated the ThagadurAdigan or Adigaiman ruler (the Satiyaputra) Neduman Anji.[7] Acting on on behalf of the Chera ruler Perum Cheral Irumporai, the Adigaiman had invaded Nannan's territory at Pazhi with a large force. During the battle, the Adigaiman was slain by Njimili (or Minjili) ("who won fame by putting to the sword vast numbers of enemies").[5][7] Njimili also killed Ay Eyinan, the old companion of Nannan, but was himself slain in the same conflict ("the battle of Pazhi Paranthalai", Akam, 141, 181, and 396, and Natrinai, 265).[5]
It is also mentioned that in a battle at Kazhumalam, Nannan defeated a chieftain named Pindan (Akam, 152, and Natrinai, 270).[18][18] The poet Kudavayur Kirattanar records Nannan's defeat of a certain Pazhayan, with the support of his associates Ettai, Atti, Gangan, Katti, and Punthurai (Akam, 44).
It is further recorded that the "Kosar" people, associated with Chellur (Perinchellur or Taliparamba), attacked the Ezhimala country of Nannan, defeating him and even cutting down his totemic mango tree. According to the poems, Nannan had earlier executed a young girl who had unknowingly eaten a fruit that had fallen from his sacred mango tree and floated down to her in a stream. This act is said to have provoked the Kosar, leading to their attack and Nannan's defeat.[18][5] Nannan was ultimately defeated and killed by Chera ruler "Kalankaykkanni" Narmudi Cheral (fl. c. 180 AD) in the battle of "Kadambin Peruvayil"/"Vakai Perunthurai" (Akam, 152, 199, Pathitruppathu, 40 and 4th decad, panegyric).[5][7] According to Pathitruppathu 40, after slaying Nannan, the Chera ruler also chopped down the sacred Vaka tree.[24]
Nannan (c. 210 AD), probably the son of the ruler mentioned earlier, is also introduced in the early Tamil poems.[5] He is celebrated in "Malaipadukkadam" by the poet Perum Kausika and is also mentioned by Mankudi Marudan in "Maduraikkanchi".[5] Another "Nannan" with the title "Udiyan" ("Nannan Udiyan"; Akam, 258: 1) is described as the "master of gold filled Pazhi".[5]
There references to another "Nannan", the ruler of "Konkanam".[6] He is described as the Nannan dwelling in "Kanam" and as "Konkanam Kizhan" (the lord of Konkanam), and as the lord of the mountain Konkanam ("Ko Perunkanam") (Akam, 392).[5]
Economy
Ezhimala on the Malabar CoastIndia RouteCardamom
The primary resource base for the Ezhimala polity (in the early historic period) and the Mushika state (medieval) was Indian Ocean spice trade (esp. pepper, cardamom and other spices from the interior hills) rather than agriculture (wet paddy cultivation).[11] Ezhimala Hill was notably the first landfall on the Malabar Coast for the sailors crossing the Arabian Sea.[11]
Greco-Roman spice trade
Much like the rest of Malabar Coast, the Ezhimala country and its ancient rulers benefited from Greco-Roman Indian Ocean spice trade during the early historic period. Early Tamil literature mentions an Indian Ocean port known as "Naravu", located in Ezhimalai country (Akam, 97).[6] The term "naravu" means "honey" or "liquor" in early Tamil dialects.[29]
A kings' double nature: a guide to singers. His armies love massacre, he loves war, yet gifts flow from him ceaselessly, Come, dear singers. Let's go and see him in Naravu, where on trees no ax can fell, fruits ripen, unharmed by swarms of bees, egg-shaped [jackfruit], ready for the weary traveler in fields of steady, unfailing harvests; where warriors with bows that never tire of arrows shiver but stand austere in the sea winds mixed with the lit cloud and the spray of seafoam. There he is, in the town of Naravu, tender among tender women.
Beyond Calliena there are other market-towns of this region; Semylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melizigara, Byzantium, Togarum and Aurannoboas. Then here are the islands called Sesecrienae and that of the Aegidii, and that of the Caenitae, opposite the place called Chersonesus (and in these places there are pirates), and after this the White Island. Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica, and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance.
Naura is commonly identified with present-day Kannur (Cannanore), located south of the Ezhimala Hill.[29] However, historians have proposed different identifications for the ancient port.[29]K. D. Thirunavukkarasu (1994) locates it in the Tulu Country, while some scholars identify it with Honnavar (Uttara Kannada).[29]Wilfred H. Schoff (1912) places Naura at Kannur (Cannanore), and Lionel Casson (1989) associates it with Mangalore, identifying it as Nitra.[29] Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya (1980) also refers to Nitra (Nitrias), which is mentioned in Greco-Roman sources.[29]
The famous Kottayam Coin Hoard, a massive cache of mostly Julio-Claudian (Roman) coins, was discovered around the year 1847 (1846-50) "on the slope of a hill by the [Arabian] sea" near Kannur (Cannanore).[8] It is speculated that coins amounted to around 8000 aurei (if approximated).[8] With few exceptions the coins were all of gold and were not worn by usage (and not deliberately slashed with a chisel).[8] The composition (coin types and number) of the hoard is not known exactly. According to extant reports, there were at least 9 coins of emperor Augustus, 28 of Tiberius, two of Caligula, and 16 coins of Claudius and 16 coins of Nero (a total of 71 coins, the last 32 in the Travancore Collection).[8] There were also descriptions of coins of Caracalla (initially misidentified as Antoninus Pius).[8]
The medieval Ezhimala rulers appear to have encouraged a variety of merchant guilds in their country. Well-known Indian guilds such as the anjuvannam, manigramam, valanchiyar and nanadeshikal are attested in the region. The Mushika kings are also described as great champions of Hindu religion and temples, while some are noted for their support of a prominent Buddhist vihara in central Kerala.[33] The presence of Jewish merchants in the ports of the Mushika country is also suggested. A site in Madayi is still known as "the Jew's Pond" (the Jutakkulam).[33]
Political geography
Early historic
Jew's Pond (the Jutakkulam)
According to early Tamil poems (the Sangam Literature), the Ezhimala country of the early historic period was located to the north of the Chera country (central Kerala).[18] The Ezhimala chieftain Nannan is described as the ruler of the slopes of Pazhi, the Ezhil Hill (Ezhimala), and Param, as well as settlements such as Viyalur and a land called "Punnadu".[18] He is also referred to as the lord of "Puzhinadu" and "Tulu Nadu".[18] Ezhimala Hill notably served as the first landmark on the Malabar Coast for Arabian Sea navigators.[11]
There are also references to another "Nannan", the ruler of the land of "Konkanam", and yet another "Nannan" who is described as ruling in Tondai Mandalam (the later in the "Malaipadukkadam").[34][18] According to the poems, Param was formerly the base of the chieftain Minjili, who was killed in the battle of "Pazhi Paranthalai".[18] The country of Ezhimala was also situated near the land of the "Kosar" people and the country of the "Kadambu" tribe.[18] It is further mentioned that Nannan fought and died in a battle against the Chera ruler Narmudi Cheral at the great harbour, "Perunthurai".[18]
The Akananuru describes the country of Nannan as follows.[18]
[…] in the slopes of Pāḻi in the tall/long Ēḻil mountain of Naṉṉaṉ with a pearl necklace, the chief of Pāram with joy of charity/abundant toddy, who liberally gives/flings elephant bulls [due his] famous liberalism, the chief with a spear who overcame Piṇṭaṉ while breaking [his] opposition on the battlefield, [Piṇṭaṉ] who very much swarmed around showing copious enmity like a colony of small white shrimps that attacks while the good vessels which give the wealth (taṉam) of great harbour (peruntuṟai) with seashore groves at the extension of the sounding water, had been sundered/dispersed […]
Medieval period
In the medieval period, the Ezhimala region or the "Kolla-desham" was home to important ports such as Madayi, Valapattanam, and Dharmapattanam (Dharmadam).[11] The ports of the Kollam country are thought to have hosted Jewish traders, and in Madayi, a site remembered as 'the Jew's Pond/Place' (Jutakkulam//Jutakkalam) survives as a trace of this legacy.[33]
Medieval "Kolla-desam" (or the "Mushika-rajya") stretched on the banks of Kavvai, Kuppam and Valappattanam rivers.[10] It came under the influence of the medieval Chera kingdom in the early medieval period.[10] The reign of Chera ruler Vijayaraga (late 9th century AD) probably witnessed the expansion of Chera influence into the Mushika country.[35] As one of the major subordinates of the Cheras, the Mushika rulers were required to supply armed contingents for the Cheras (in their battles for the Cholas, against the Rashtrakutas).[36]
However, the repeated Chola references (early 11th century AD) to several kings in medieval Kerala hints that the sovereign power of the Chera rulers, at this period, was restricted to central Kerala (the country around capital Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur). The medieval Chera authority perhaps remained nominal in northern and southern Kerala compared with the power that local rulers (such as that of the Mushika in the north and Venad in the south) exercised politically and militarily.[37] However, it is known that the Mushika rulers did provide military contingents for the Cheras (in their battles against the Cholas).[36]
While other chieftaincies under the Chera rulers had its local militia called "the Hundred", the Mushika ruler maintained his own "Companions of Honour" called "the Thousand" (a privilege which the Chera ruler at Mahodayapuram had reserved for himself). Inscriptions from the neighboring Alupa state refer to this armed militia (of "the ruler of Kolam").[36]
Origins from Mushaka Vamsa Kavya
Kannapuram inscriptionManiyoor inscription
Mushaka Vamsa Kavya was composed by poet "Atula" in the court of Mushika ruler Srikantha.[38]
The medieval Mushikas rulers professed to be of the [ Kshatriyas of] Hehaya line of Mahismati (the Hehayas being themselves Yadavas).[39] The first Mushika king, consecrated by Parashurama as the kshatriya king of the country, according to the Mushaka Vamsa Kavya, was son of a widowed queen from Mahismati.[39] The queen had escaped from the wrath of Parashurama and fled to the divine Ezhimala Mountain.[17] This king's [youngest] son, Nandana, succeeded him as the Mushika ruler [of the city of Kolam].[39]
The minister of the first Ramaghata Mushika was certain "vaishya" by the title "Maha Navika" (the Great Sailor).[38]
Ramaghata Mushika named Jayamani, according to the poem, obtained the aid of a Pandya and regained his throne.[38] Another Mushika named Virchona killed a Pallava royal and married his daughter.[38]
Daughter of Mushika ruler Kunchi Varma was married to the king of Kerala/Chera [named Raghupati Jayaraga]. Isana Varma Ranamani, the son of Kunchi Varma, battled the Kerala king Jayaraga afterwards. Peace between the two clans was established with the help of certain Goda Keralaketu [son of Jayaraga and the Mushika princess]. After this event, Kerala king Jayaraga entered the Mushika country and visited Mushika capital Kola [and Isana Varma then married a Chola princess].[38] These events are sometimes analyzed in view of the growing Chola-Rashtrakuta rivalry in southern India.[11]
Mushika country under king Validhara was attacked by the Ganga forces from the Mountains.[38]
Mushika prince Valabha, according to the poem, once marched south to assist the Kerala (the Chera) king in resisting a Chola invasion of the Kerala Country [at the direction of the then ruler, his uncle Ramaghata Jayamani]. This prince, after his coronation, also conquered several islands in the ocean (Laccadives).[38]
The Vaishnava Garuda [eagle] banner was the flag-sign of the medieval Mushika rulers.[39]
Mushika/Kollam Rulers from Medieval Inscriptions (10th –12th centuries AD)
In 1005 AD, i. e., 20 regnal year of emperor Rajaraja I (985–1014 AD), there is a reference (in the Senur inscription) to the defeat of the "haughty" kings at Kollam, Kolladesam and Kodungallur at the hand of Rajaraja.[44] The "Kolladesam" is identified with the Mushika kingdom in north Kerala. According to scholars, "plunder is emphasised more than conquest [in the inscription] and it is likely that the victories at Kollam in the south, Kodungallur in the center and Kolladesam in the north of Kerala have been primarily the achievement of [the Chola] naval forces".[44]
Chola emperor Rajadhiraja (1019–1044–1053/4 AD) is stated to have "confined the undaunted king of Venad [back] to Che[ra]natu, destroyed the Iramakuta Muvar in anger, and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi flowers after capturing Kantalur Salai [ Vizhinjam?] while the strong Villavan [the Chera king] hid himself in terror inside the jungle".[45] The Ramakuta Muvar is not named in the above Chola prasasti (the above events are dated to around 1018–19 AD).[45]
The presence of Chola army in north Kerala (1020 AD) is confirmed by the Eramam inscription of Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (10th/11th century AD) (which mentions a meeting attended by Rajendra Chola Samaya Senapati in the Chalappuram Temple).[45]
Partly in the courtyard of the temple on either side of the sopana.[49]
Partly in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.[49]
Creation and endowment of a grama (Brahmin settlement) with members chosen from some old grama settlements from central Kerala (Vaikom, Paravur, Avittathoor, Irinjalakuda and Peruvanam).[49]
The engraver is mentioned as Rama Jayamani, the "royal goldsmith of the Mushika king [Jayamani]".[49]
Single stone slab outside the prakara (outer wall) of the temple.[61]
Maniyur inscriptionConfirms the extension of the so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam to Mushika country.[61]
Udaya Varma Kolattiri
An inscription discovered from Kannappuram Temple, found fixed on a platform outside the prakara of the temple, in old Malayalam mentions king "Udaya Varma Ramakuta Muvar".[61] The record give details of land set apart for the expenses of the Kannapuram Temple. The inscription can be attributed to the early years of the 12th century on the basis of script and language.[62]
Inscription
Location
Notes
Kannapuram inscription
(beginning of the 12th century)
Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple.[63]
King Udaya Varma of Karippattu palace in Kolattunadu is described as a favourite of the medieval Chera king in traditional Kerala chronicles. He is described as the overlord of the Fort Valapattanam, the medieval Chera king's Palace, the Taliparamba Temple, and the Perinchellur Brahmin village.[65]
1 2 3 4 5 Gurukkal, Rajan (2002). "Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 138–150. ISSN2249-1937. JSTOR44158082.
1 2 Ganesh, K. N. (2009). "Lived Spaces in History: A Study in Human Geography in the Context of Sangam Texts". Studies in History. 25 (2): 151–195. doi:10.1177/025764301002500201. ISSN0257-6430.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Turner, Paula J. (2016) [2009]. Roman Coins from India. University College London Institute of Archaeology Publications. pp.8–9, 62-63 and 100 and 112.
1 2 3 Ganesh, K. N. (2009). "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". Indian Historical Review. 36 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1177/037698360903600102. ISSN0376-9836.
↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp.118–119, 122–123, 137–138, 141, and 180-182. ISBN9788188765072.
Ganesh, K. N. (2009). "Lived Spaces in History: A Study in Human Geography in the Context of Sangam Texts". Studies in History. 25 (2): 151–195. doi:10.1177/025764301002500201. ISSN0257-6430.
Ganesh, K. N. (2009). "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". Indian Historical Review. 36 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1177/037698360903600102. ISSN0376-9836.
Gurukkal, Rajan (2002). "Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 63: 138–150. ISSN2249-1937. JSTOR44158082.
Vielle, Christophe (2014). Veluthat, Kesavan; Davis, Jr, Donald R. (eds.). "How did Paraśurāma Come to Raise Kerala". Irreverent History: Essays for M. G. S. Narayanan: 18–19.
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