Kidney disease

Last updated
Kidney disease
Other namesRenal disease, nephropathy
Kidney - acute cortical necrosis.jpg
Pathologic kidney specimen showing marked pallor of the cortex, contrasting to the darker areas of surviving medullary tissue. The patient died with acute kidney injury.
Specialty Nephrology, urology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Complications Uremia, death

Kidney disease, or renal disease, technically referred to as nephropathy, is damage to or disease of a kidney. Nephritis is an inflammatory kidney disease and has several types according to the location of the inflammation. Inflammation can be diagnosed by blood tests. Nephrosis is non-inflammatory kidney disease. Nephritis and nephrosis can give rise to nephritic syndrome and nephrotic syndrome respectively. Kidney disease usually causes a loss of kidney function to some degree and can result in kidney failure, the complete loss of kidney function. Kidney failure is known as the end-stage of kidney disease, where dialysis or a kidney transplant is the only treatment option.

Contents

Chronic kidney disease is defined as prolonged kidney abnormalities (functional and/or structural in nature) that last for more than three months. [1] Acute kidney disease is now termed acute kidney injury and is marked by the sudden reduction in kidney function over seven days.

Rates for both chronic kidney disease and mortality have increased, associated with the rising prevalence of diabetes and the ageing global population. [2] [3] The World Health Organization has reported that "kidney diseases have risen from the world’s nineteenth leading cause of death to the ninth, with the number of deaths increasing by 95% between 2000 and 2021." [4] In the United States, prevalence has risen from about one in eight in 2007, [5] to one in seven in 2021. [6]

Causes

Deaths due to kidney diseases per million persons in 2012 .mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column} .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} 16-61 62-79 80-88 89-95 96-110 111-120 121-135 136-160 161-186 187-343 Kidney diseases world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg
Deaths due to kidney diseases per million persons in 2012
  16–61
  62–79
  80–88
  89–95
  96–110
  111–120
  121–135
  136–160
  161–186
  187–343

Causes of kidney disease include deposition of the Immunoglobulin A antibodies in the glomerulus, administration of analgesics, xanthine oxidase deficiency, toxicity of chemotherapy agents, and a long-term exposure to lead or its salts. Chronic conditions that can produce nephropathy include systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure (hypertension), which lead to diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephropathy, respectively.

Analgesics

One cause of nephropathy is the long term usage of pain medications known as analgesics. The pain medicines which can cause kidney problems include aspirin, acetaminophen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). This form of nephropathy is "chronic analgesic nephritis," a chronic inflammatory change characterized by loss and atrophy of tubules and interstitial fibrosis and inflammation (BRS Pathology, 2nd ed.).

Specifically, long-term use of the analgesic phenacetin has been linked to renal papillary necrosis (necrotizing papillitis).

Diabetes

Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by angiopathy of the capillaries in the glomeruli. It is characterized by nephrotic syndrome and diffuse scarring of the glomeruli. It is particularly associated with poorly managed diabetes mellitus and is a primary reason for dialysis in many developed countries. It is classified as a small blood vessel complication of diabetes. [7]

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

Gabow 1990 talks about Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney disease and how this disease is genetic. They go on to say "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common genetic disease, affecting a half million Americans. The clinical phenotype can result from at least two different gene defects. One gene that can cause ADPKD has been located on the short arm of chromosome 16." [8] The same article also goes on to say that millions of Americans are effected by this disease and is very common.

COVID-19

COVID-19 is associated with kidney disease. In patients hospitalized with COVID-19, the prevalence of acute kidney injury is estimated to be 28%, and the prevalence of renal replacement therapy is estimated to be 9%. [9]

Diet

Higher dietary intake of animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol may increase risk for microalbuminuria, a sign of kidney function decline, [10] and generally, diets higher in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains but lower in meat and sweets may be protective against kidney function decline. [11] This may be because sources of animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol, and sweets are more acid-producing, while fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains are more base-producing. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]

IgA nephropathy

IgA nephropathy is the most common glomerulonephritis throughout the world [22] Primary IgA nephropathy is characterized by deposition of the IgA antibody in the glomerulus. The classic presentation (in 40–50% of the cases) is episodic frank hematuria which usually starts within a day or two of a non-specific upper respiratory tract infection (hence synpharyngitic) as opposed to post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis which occurs some time (weeks) after initial infection. Less commonly gastrointestinal or urinary infection can be the inciting agent. All of these infections have in common the activation of mucosal defenses and hence IgA antibody production.

Iodinated contrast media

Kidney disease induced by iodinated contrast media (ICM) is called contrast induced nephropathy (CIN) or contrast-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). Currently, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. But there is a body of evidence that several factors including apoptosis-induction seem to play a role. [23]

Lithium

Lithium, a medication commonly used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorders, can cause nephrogenic diabetes insipidus; its long-term use can lead to nephropathy. [24]

Lupus

Despite expensive treatments, lupus nephritis remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people with relapsing or refractory lupus nephritis. [25]

Xanthine oxidase deficiency

Another possible cause of Kidney disease is due to decreased function of xanthine oxidase in the purine degradation pathway. Xanthine oxidase will degrade hypoxanthine to xanthine and then to uric acid. Xanthine is not very soluble in water; therefore, an increase in xanthine forms crystals (which can lead to kidney stones) and result in damage to the kidney. Xanthine oxidase inhibitors, like allopurinol, can cause nephropathy.

Polycystic disease of the kidneys

Additional possible cause of nephropathy is due to the formation of cysts or pockets containing fluid within the kidneys. These cysts become enlarged with the progression of aging causing renal failure. Cysts may also form in other organs including the liver, brain, and ovaries. Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disease caused by mutations in the PKD1, PKD2, and PKHD1 genes. This disease affects about half a million people in the US. Polycystic kidneys are susceptible to infections and cancer.

Toxicity of chemotherapy agents

Nephropathy can be associated with some therapies used to treat cancer. The most common form of kidney disease in cancer patients is acute kidney injury (AKI) which can usually be due to volume depletion from vomiting and diarrhea that occur following chemotherapy or occasionally due to kidney toxicities of chemotherapeutic agents. Kidney failure from break down of cancer cells, usually after chemotherapy, is unique to onconephrology. Several chemotherapeutic agents, for example cisplatin, are associated with acute and chronic kidney injuries. [26] Newer agents such as anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) are also associated with similar injuries, as well as proteinuria, hypertension, and thrombotic microangiopathy. [27]

Diagnosis

The standard diagnostic workup of suspected kidney disease includes a medical history, physical examination, a urine test, and an ultrasound of the kidneys (renal ultrasonography). An ultrasound is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney disease. [28]

Treatment

Treatment approaches for kidney disease focus on managing the symptoms, controlling the progression, and also treating co-morbidities that a person may have. [1]

Dialysis

Transplantation

Millions of people across the world have kidney disease. Of those millions, several thousand will need dialysis or a kidney transplant at its end-stage. [29] In the United States, as of 2008, 16,500 people needed a kidney transplant. [29] Of those, 5,000 died while waiting for a transplant. [29] Currently, there is a shortage of donors, and in 2007 there were only 64,606 kidney transplants in the world. [29] This shortage of donors is causing countries to place monetary value on kidneys. Countries such as Iran and Singapore are eliminating their lists by paying their citizens to donate. Also, the black market accounts for 5–10 percent of transplants that occur worldwide. [29] The act of buying an organ through the black market is illegal in the United States. [30] To be put on the waiting list for a kidney transplant, patients must first be referred by a physician, then they must choose and contact a donor hospital. Once they choose a donor hospital, patients must then receive an evaluation to make sure they are sustainable to receive a transplant. In order to be a match for a kidney transplant, patients must match blood type and human leukocyte antigen factors with their donors. They must also have no reactions to the antibodies from the donor's kidneys. [31] [29]

Prognosis

Kidney disease can have serious consequences if it cannot be controlled effectively. Generally, the progression of kidney disease is from mild to serious. Some kidney diseases can cause kidney failure.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease</span> Medical condition

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is one of the most common, life-threatening inherited human disorders and the most common hereditary kidney disease. It is associated with large interfamilial and intrafamilial variability, which can be explained to a large extent by its genetic heterogeneity and modifier genes. It is also the most common of the inherited cystic kidney diseases — a group of disorders with related but distinct pathogenesis, characterized by the development of renal cysts and various extrarenal manifestations, which in case of ADPKD include cysts in other organs, such as the liver, seminal vesicles, pancreas, and arachnoid membrane, as well as other abnormalities, such as intracranial aneurysms and dolichoectasias, aortic root dilatation and aneurysms, mitral valve prolapse, and abdominal wall hernias. Over 50% of patients with ADPKD eventually develop end stage kidney disease and require dialysis or kidney transplantation. ADPKD is estimated to affect at least one in every 1000 individuals worldwide, making this disease the most common inherited kidney disorder with a diagnosed prevalence of 1:2000 and incidence of 1:3000-1:8000 in a global scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proteinuria</span> Presence of an excess of serum proteins in the urine

Proteinuria is the presence of excess proteins in the urine. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein, less than 150 mg/day; an excess is suggestive of illness. Excess protein in the urine often causes the urine to become foamy. Severe proteinuria can cause nephrotic syndrome in which there is worsening swelling of the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kidney failure</span> Disease where the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste products from the blood

Kidney failure, also known as renal failure or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is a medical condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately filter waste products from the blood, functioning at less than 15% of normal levels. Kidney failure is classified as either acute kidney failure, which develops rapidly and may resolve; and chronic kidney failure, which develops slowly and can often be irreversible. Symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, and confusion. Complications of acute and chronic failure include uremia, hyperkalemia, and volume overload. Complications of chronic failure also include heart disease, high blood pressure, and anaemia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chronic kidney disease</span> Abnormal kidney structure or gradual loss of kidney function

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of long-term kidney disease, in which either there is a gradual loss of kidney function which occurs over a period of months to years, or an abnormal kidney structure. Initially generally no symptoms are seen, but later symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, and confusion. Complications can relate to hormonal dysfunction of the kidneys and include high blood pressure, bone disease, and anemia. Additionally CKD patients have markedly increased cardiovascular complications with increased risks of death and hospitalization. CKD can lead to kidney failure requiring kidney dialysis or kidney transplantation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IgA nephropathy</span> Disease of the kidney

IgA nephropathy (IgAN), also known as Berger's disease, or synpharyngitic glomerulonephritis, is a disease of the kidney and the immune system; specifically it is a form of glomerulonephritis or an inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidney. Aggressive Berger's disease can attack other major organs, such as the liver, skin and heart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metabolic acidosis</span> Imbalance in the bodys acid-base equilibrium

Metabolic acidosis is a serious electrolyte disorder characterized by an imbalance in the body's acid-base balance. Metabolic acidosis has three main root causes: increased acid production, loss of bicarbonate, and a reduced ability of the kidneys to excrete excess acids. Metabolic acidosis can lead to acidemia, which is defined as arterial blood pH that is lower than 7.35. Acidemia and acidosis are not mutually exclusive – pH and hydrogen ion concentrations also depend on the coexistence of other acid-base disorders; therefore, pH levels in people with metabolic acidosis can range from low to high.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diabetic nephropathy</span> Chronic loss of kidney function

Diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally. The triad of protein leaking into the urine, rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of CKD. Protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling (edema) so called nephrotic syndrome. Likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml/min/1.73m2 to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end-stage renal disease. It usually is slowly progressive over years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Membranous glomerulonephritis</span> Kidney disease

Membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN) is a slowly progressive disease of the kidney affecting mostly people between ages of 30 and 50 years, usually white people.

Protein toxicity is the effect of the buildup of protein metabolic waste compounds, like urea, uric acid, ammonia, and creatinine. Protein toxicity has many causes, including urea cycle disorders, genetic mutations, excessive protein intake, and insufficient kidney function, such as chronic kidney disease and acute kidney injury. Symptoms of protein toxicity include unexplained vomiting and loss of appetite. Untreated protein toxicity can lead to serious complications such as seizures, encephalopathy, further kidney damage, and even death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interstitial nephritis</span> Medical condition

Interstitial nephritis, also known as tubulointerstitial nephritis, is inflammation of the area of the kidney known as the renal interstitium, which consists of a collection of cells, extracellular matrix, and fluid surrounding the renal tubules. It is also known as intestinal nephritis because the clinical picture may in some cases of acute pyelonephritis include mesenteric lymphadenitis. More specifically, in case of recurrent urinary tract infection, secondary infection can spread to adjacent intestine. In addition to providing a scaffolding support for the tubular architecture, the interstitium has been shown to participate in the fluid and electrolyte exchange as well as endocrine functions of the kidney.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency</span> Medical condition

Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder caused by mutations of the APRT gene. Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) catalyzes the creation of pyrophosphate and adenosine monophosphate from 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate and adenine. Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase is a purine salvage enzyme. Genetic mutations of adenine phosphoribosyltransferase make large amounts of 2,8-Dihydroxyadenine causing urolithiasis and renal failure.

Phosphate nephropathy or nephrocalcinosis is an adverse renal condition that arises with a formation of phosphate crystals within the kidney's tubules. This renal insufficiency is associated with the use of oral sodium phosphate (OSP), such as C.B. Fleet's Phospho soda and Salix's Visocol, for bowel cleansing prior to a colonoscopy.   

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Analgesic nephropathy</span> Medical condition

Analgesic nephropathy is injury to the kidneys caused by analgesic medications such as aspirin, bucetin, phenacetin, and paracetamol. The term usually refers to damage induced by excessive use of combinations of these medications, especially combinations that include phenacetin. It may also be used to describe kidney injury from any single analgesic medication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Balkan endemic nephropathy</span> Medical condition

Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) is a form of interstitial nephritis causing kidney failure. It was first identified in the 1920s among several small, discrete communities along the Danube River and its major tributaries, in the modern countries of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Romania, and Bulgaria. It is caused by small long-term doses of aristolochic acid in the diet. The disease primarily affects people 30 to 60 years of age. Doses of the toxin are usually low and people moving to endemic areas typically develop the condition only when they have lived there for 10–20 years. People taking higher doses of aristolochic acid have developed kidney failure after shorter durations of exposure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acute proliferative glomerulonephritis</span> Medical condition

Acute proliferative glomerulonephritis is a disorder of the small blood vessels of the kidney. It is a common complication of bacterial infections, typically skin infection by Streptococcus bacteria types 12, 4 and 1 (impetigo) but also after streptococcal pharyngitis, for which it is also known as postinfectious glomerulonephritis (PIGN) or poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN). It can be a risk factor for future albuminuria. In adults, the signs and symptoms of infection may still be present at the time when the kidney problems develop, and the terms infection-related glomerulonephritis or bacterial infection-related glomerulonephritis are also used. Acute glomerulonephritis resulted in 19,000 deaths in 2013, down from 24,000 deaths in 1990 worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis</span> Medical condition

Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (MesPGN) is a morphological pattern characterized by a numerical increase in mesangial cells and expansion of the extracellular matrix within the mesangium of the glomerulus. The increase in the number of mesangial cells can be diffuse or local and immunoglobulin and/or complement deposition can also occur. MesPGN is associated with a variety of disease processes affecting the glomerulus, though can be idiopathic. The clinical presentation of MesPGN usually consists of hematuria or nephrotic syndrome. Treatment is often consistent with the histologic pattern of and/or disease process contributing to mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis, and usually involves some form of immunosuppressant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polycystic kidney disease</span> Congenital disorder of urinary system

Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disorder in which the renal tubules become structurally abnormal, resulting in the development and growth of multiple cysts within the kidney. These cysts may begin to develop in utero, in infancy, in childhood, or in adulthood. Cysts are non-functioning tubules filled with fluid pumped into them, which range in size from microscopic to enormous, crushing adjacent normal tubules and eventually rendering them non-functional as well.

Onconephrology is a specialty in nephrology that deals with the study of kidney diseases in cancer patients. A nephrologist who takes care of patients with cancer and kidney disease is called an onconephrologist. This branch of nephrology encompasses nephrotoxicity associated with existing and novel chemotherapeutics, kidney disease as it pertains to stem cell transplant, paraneoplastic kidney disorders, paraproteinemias, electrolyte disorders associated with cancer, and more as discussed below.

Mesoamerican nephropathy (MeN) is an endemic, non-diabetic, non-hypertensive chronic kidney disease (CKD) characterized by reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) with mild or no proteinuria and no features of known primary glomerular diseases. MeN is prevalent in agricultural communities along the Pacific Ocean coastal lowlands Mesoamerica, including southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica. Although most cases have been described among agricultural workers, MeN has also been described in other occupations, including miners, brick manufacturers, and fishermen. A common denominator among these occupations is that they are outdoor workers who reside in rural areas in hot and humid climates.

Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) is an increasing health concern in Sri Lanka. CKDu is recognized as chronic kidney disease without the usual associated causative factors. The first cases of CKDu were reported in Sri Lanka's North Central Province (NCP). Chronic kidney disease, was identified as the 8th leading cause of in-hospital mortality in Sri Lanka, and the leading cause of death in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa in 2016. This rise in mortality coincided with the increasing cases of CKDu seen across the country. Studies have shown an estimated 70,000 CKDu patients in high risk areas. Various possible causes for CKDu in Sri Lankans have been investigated, including poisoning from metals, cyanobacteria toxins, agrochemicals, and heat stress, but no definite causes have been identified.

References

  1. 1 2 Kim, Kun Hyung; Lee, Myeong Soo; Kim, Tae-Hun; Kang, Jung Won; Choi, Tae-Young; Lee, Jae Dong (2016-06-28). "Acupuncture and related interventions for symptoms of chronic kidney disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (6): CD009440. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009440.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   8406453 . PMID   27349639.
  2. ↑ Imai, Enyu; Matsuo, Seiichi (2008-06-28). "Chronic kidney disease in Asia". The Lancet. 371 (9631): 2147–2148. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60928-9. PMID   18586155 . Retrieved 2024-08-12.
  3. ↑ James, Matthew T; Hemmelgarn, Brenda R; Tonelli, Marcello (2010-04-10). "Early recognition and prevention of chronic kidney disease". The Lancet. 375 (9722): 1296–1309. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62004-3. PMID   20382326 . Retrieved 2024-08-12.
  4. ↑ "The top 10 causes of death". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-08-12.
  5. ↑ Coresh, Josef; Selvin, Elizabeth; Stevens, Lesley A.; Manzi, Jane; Kusek, John W.; Eggers, Paul; Van Lente, Frederick; Levey, Andrew S. (2007-11-07). "Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States". JAMA. 298 (17): 2038–2047. doi:10.1001/jama.298.17.2038. ISSN   1538-3598. PMID   17986697.
  6. ↑ "Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States, 2023". www.cdc.gov. 2024-05-15. Retrieved 2024-08-12.
  7. ↑ Longo et al., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18th ed., p. 2982
  8. ↑ Gabow, Patricia A. (1 November 1990). "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease – More Than a Renal Disease". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 16 (5): 403–413. doi:10.1016/S0272-6386(12)80051-5. PMID   2239929.
  9. ↑ Silver, Samuel; Beaubien-Souligny, William; Shah, Prakesh; Harel, Shai; Blum, Daniel; Kishibe, Teruko; Meraz-Muñoz, Alejandro; Wald, Ron; Harel, Ziv (2020-12-08). "The Prevalence of Acute Kidney Injury in Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Kidney Medicine. 3 (1): 83–98.e1. doi:10.1016/j.xkme.2020.11.008. PMC   7723763 . PMID   33319190 . Retrieved 2024-04-05.
  10. ↑ Lin, Julie; Hu, Frank B.; Curhan, Gary C. (2010-05-01). "Associations of diet with albuminuria and kidney function decline". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 5 (5): 836–843. doi:10.2215/CJN.08001109. ISSN   1555-905X. PMC   2863979 . PMID   20299364.
  11. ↑ Lin, Julie; Fung, Teresa T.; Hu, Frank B.; Curhan, Gary C. (2011-02-01). "Association of dietary patterns with albuminuria and kidney function decline in older white women: a subgroup analysis from the Nurses' Health Study". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 57 (2): 245–254. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2010.09.027. ISSN   1523-6838. PMC   3026604 . PMID   21251540.
  12. ↑ Chen, Wei; Abramowitz, Matthew K. (2014-01-01). "Metabolic acidosis and the progression of chronic kidney disease". BMC Nephrology. 15: 55. doi: 10.1186/1471-2369-15-55 . ISSN   1471-2369. PMC   4233646 . PMID   24708763.
  13. ↑ Sebastian, Anthony; Frassetto, Lynda A.; Sellmeyer, Deborah E.; Merriam, Renée L.; Morris, R. Curtis (2002-12-01). "Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76 (6): 1308–1316. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.6.1308 . ISSN   0002-9165. PMID   12450898.
  14. ↑ van den Berg, Else; Hospers, Frédérique A. P.; Navis, Gerjan; Engberink, Marielle F.; Brink, Elizabeth J.; Geleijnse, Johanna M.; van Baak, Marleen A.; Gans, Rijk O. B.; Bakker, Stephan J. L. (2011-02-01). "Dietary acid load and rapid progression to end-stage renal disease of diabetic nephropathy in Westernized South Asian people". Journal of Nephrology. 24 (1): 11–17. doi:10.5301/jn.2010.5711. ISSN   1724-6059. PMID   20872351.
  15. ↑ Brenner, B. M.; Meyer, T. W.; Hostetter, T. H. (1982-09-09). "Dietary protein intake and the progressive nature of kidney disease: the role of hemodynamically mediated glomerular injury in the pathogenesis of progressive glomerular sclerosis in aging, renal ablation, and intrinsic renal disease". The New England Journal of Medicine. 307 (11): 652–659. doi:10.1056/NEJM198209093071104. ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   7050706.
  16. ↑ Goraya, Nimrit; Wesson, Donald E. (2014-01-01). "Is dietary Acid a modifiable risk factor for nephropathy progression?". American Journal of Nephrology. 39 (2): 142–144. doi: 10.1159/000358602 . ISSN   1421-9670. PMID   24513954.
  17. ↑ Scialla, Julia J.; Appel, Lawrence J.; Astor, Brad C.; Miller, Edgar R.; Beddhu, Srinivasan; Woodward, Mark; Parekh, Rulan S.; Anderson, Cheryl A. M. (2011-07-01). "Estimated net endogenous acid production and serum bicarbonate in African Americans with chronic kidney disease". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 6 (7): 1526–1532. doi:10.2215/CJN.00150111. ISSN   1555-905X. PMC   3552445 . PMID   21700817.
  18. ↑ Kanda, Eiichiro; Ai, Masumi; Kuriyama, Renjiro; Yoshida, Masayuki; Shiigai, Tatsuo (2014-01-01). "Dietary acid intake and kidney disease progression in the elderly". American Journal of Nephrology. 39 (2): 145–152. doi: 10.1159/000358262 . ISSN   1421-9670. PMID   24513976.
  19. ↑ Banerjee, Tanushree; Crews, Deidra C.; Wesson, Donald E.; Tilea, Anca; Saran, Rajiv; Rios Burrows, Nilka; Williams, Desmond E.; Powe, Neil R.; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Chronic Kidney Disease Surveillance Team (2014-01-01). "Dietary acid load and chronic kidney disease among adults in the United States". BMC Nephrology. 15: 137. doi: 10.1186/1471-2369-15-137 . ISSN   1471-2369. PMC   4151375 . PMID   25151260.
  20. ↑ Goraya, Nimrit; Simoni, Jan; Jo, Chan-Hee; Wesson, Donald E. (2013-03-01). "A comparison of treating metabolic acidosis in CKD stage 4 hypertensive kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or sodium bicarbonate". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 8 (3): 371–381. doi:10.2215/CJN.02430312. ISSN   1555-905X. PMC   3586961 . PMID   23393104.
  21. ↑ Deriemaeker, Peter; Aerenhouts, Dirk; Hebbelinck, Marcel; Clarys, Peter (2010-03-01). "Nutrient based estimation of acid-base balance in vegetarians and non-vegetarians". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands). 65 (1): 77–82. doi:10.1007/s11130-009-0149-5. ISSN   1573-9104. PMID   20054653. S2CID   21268495.
  22. ↑ D'Amico, G (1987). "The commonest glomerulonephritis in the world: IgA nephropathy". Q J Med. 64 (245): 709–727. PMID   3329736.
  23. ↑ Idee, J.-; Boehm, J.; Prigent, P.; Ballet, S.; Corot, C. (2006). "Role of Apoptosis in the Pathogenesis of Contrast Media-induced Nephropathy and Hints for its Possible Prevention by Drug Treatment". Anti-Inflammatory & Anti-Allergy Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 5 (2): 139–146. doi:10.2174/187152306776872442.
  24. ↑ Grünfeld, JP; Rossier, BC (May 2009). "Lithium nephrotoxicity revisited". Nat Rev Nephrol. 5 (5): 270–276. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2009.43. PMID   19384328. S2CID   36253297.
  25. ↑ Borchers, Andrea T.; Leibushor, Naama; Naguwa, Stanley M.; Cheema, Gurtej S.; Shoenfeld, Yehuda; Gershwin, M. Eric (2012-12-01). "Lupus nephritis: a critical review". Autoimmunity Reviews. 12 (2): 174–194. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2012.08.018. ISSN   1873-0183. PMID   22982174.
  26. ↑ Portilla D, Safar AM, Shannon ML, Penson RT. "Cisplatin nephrotoxicity". In: UpToDate, Palevsky PM (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2013. http://www.uptodate.com/contents/cisplatin-nephrotoxicity
  27. ↑ Robinson, Emily S.; Khankin, Eliyahu V.; Karumanchi, S. Ananth; Humphreys, Benjamin D. (1 November 2010). "Hypertension Induced by Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Signaling Pathway Inhibition: Mechanisms and Potential Use as a Biomarker". Seminars in Nephrology. 30 (6): 591–601. doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2010.09.007. PMC   3058726 . PMID   21146124.
  28. ↑ Hansen, Kristoffer Lindskov; Nielsen, Michael Bachmann; Ewertsen, Caroline (2015-12-23). "Ultrasonography of the Kidney: A Pictorial Review". Diagnostics. 6 (1): 2. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics6010002 . ISSN   2075-4418. PMC   4808817 . PMID   26838799.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tabarrok, Alex (January 8, 2010). "The Meat Market". Wall Street Journal.
  30. ↑ Scheve, Tom (7 May 2008). "How Organ Donations Work". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.