Pythonidae

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Pythonidae
Python molurus molurus 2.jpg
Indian python ( Python molurus )
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Superfamily: Pythonoidea
Family: Pythonidae
Fitzinger, 1826
Synonyms
  • Pythonoidia - Fitzinger, 1826
  • Pythonoidei - Eichwald, 1831
  • Holodonta - Müller, 1832
  • Pythonina - Bonaparte, 1840
  • Pythophes - Fitzinger, 1843
  • Pythoniens - A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844
  • Holodontes - A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844
  • Pythonides - A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1844
  • Pythones - Cope, 1861
  • Pythonidae - Cope, 1864
  • Peropodes - Meyer, 1874
  • Chondropythonina - Boulenger, 1879
  • Pythoninae - Boulenger, 1890
  • Pythonini - Underwood & Stimson, 1990
  • Moreliini - Underwood & Stimson, 1990 [1]
Indian python (Python molurus) LRMEXPORT 187433861073166 20200523 062423632a.jpg
Indian python ( Python molurus )

The Pythonidae, commonly known as pythons, are a family of nonvenomous snakes found in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Among its members are some of the largest snakes in the world. Ten genera and 39 species are currently recognized. Being naturally non-venomous, pythons must constrict their prey to suffocate it prior to consumption. Pythons will typically strike at and bite their prey of choice to gain hold of it; they then must use physical strength to constrict their prey, by coiling their muscular bodies around the animal, effectively suffocating it before swallowing whole. This is in stark contrast to venomous snakes such as the rattlesnake, for example, which delivers a swift, venomous bite but releases, waiting as the prey succumbs to envenomation before being consumed. Collectively, the pythons are well-documented and -studied as constrictors, much like other non-venomous snakes, including the boas and even kingsnakes of the New World. [2]

Pythons are found in regions like sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia, with an invasive population of Burmese pythons in the Everglades National Park, Florida. They are ambush predators that primarily kill prey by constriction, causing cardiac arrest. Pythons are oviparous, laying eggs that females incubate until they hatch. They possess premaxillary teeth, with the exception of adults in the Australian genus Aspidites. [3] [4] While many species are available in the exotic pet trade, caution is needed with larger species due to potential danger. The taxonomy of pythons has evolved, and they are now more closely related to sunbeam snakes and the Mexican burrowing python.

Pythons are poached for their meat and skin, leading to a billion-dollar global trade. They can carry diseases, such as salmonella and leptospirosis, which can be transmitted to humans. Pythons are also used in African traditional medicine to treat ailments like rheumatism and mental illnesses. Their body parts, including blood and organs, are believed to have various healing properties. In some African cultures, pythons have significant roles in folklore and mythology, often symbolizing strength or having sacred status.

Distribution and habitat

Pythons are found in sub-Saharan Africa, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Southeast Asia, southeastern Pakistan, southern China, the Philippines and Australia. [1]

In the United States, an introduced population of Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) has existed as an invasive species in Everglades National Park since the late 1990s. As of January 2023, estimates place the Floridian Burmese python population at around half a million. Local bounties are awarded and scientists study dead Burmese pythons to better understand breeding cycles and trends associated with rapid population explosion. The pythons readily prey on native North American fauna in Florida, including (but not limited to) American alligators, birds, bobcats, American bullfrogs, opossums, raccoons, river otters, white-tailed deer, and occasionally domestic pets and livestock. They are also known to prey on other invasive and introduced animals to Florida, such as the green iguana and nutria (coypu), though not at a rate as to lower their numbers rapidly or effectively. [5]

Conservation

Many species have been hunted aggressively, which has greatly reduced the population of some, such as the Indian python (Python molurus) and the Ball python (Python regius).

Behavior

Black-headed python (Aspidites melanocephalus) Blackheaded python2.jpg
Black-headed python
(Aspidites melanocephalus)

Most members of this family are ambush predators, in that they typically remain motionless in a camouflaged position, and then strike suddenly at passing prey. Attacks on humans, although known to occur, are extremely rare. [6] [7]

Feeding

Pythons use their sharp, backward-curving teeth, four rows in the upper jaw, two in the lower, to grasp prey which is then killed by constriction; after an animal has been grasped to restrain it, the python quickly wraps a number of coils around it. Death occurs primarily by cardiac arrest. [8] [9]

Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a domestic cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adult deer, and the Central African rock python, Python sebae, has been known to eat antelope. In 2017, there was a recorded case of a human devoured by a python in Sulawesi, Indonesia. [10] All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.

Even the larger species, such as the reticulated python, Malayopython reticulatus, do not crush their prey to death; in fact, prey is not even noticeably deformed before it is swallowed.[ citation needed ] The speed with which the coils are applied is impressive and the force they exert may be significant, but death is caused by cardiac arrest.[ citation needed ]

A python skull Python skull rotation.gif
A python skull

Reproduction

Pythons are oviparous. This sets them apart from the family Boidae (boas), most of which bear live young (ovoviviparous). After they lay their eggs, females typically incubate them until they hatch. This is achieved by causing the muscles to "shiver", which raises the temperature of the body to a certain degree, and thus that of the eggs. Keeping the eggs at a constant temperature is essential for healthy embryo development. During the incubation period, females do not eat and leave only to bask to raise their body temperature.

Captivity

Most species in this family are available in the exotic pet trade. However, caution must be exercised with the larger species, as they can be dangerous; rare cases of large specimens killing their owners have been documented. [11] [12]

Taxonomy

Obsolete classification schemes—such as that of Boulenger (1890)—place pythons in Pythoninae, a subfamily of the boa family, Boidae. [1] However, despite a superficial resemblance to boas, pythons are more closely related to the sunbeam snakes ( Xenopeltis ) and the Mexican python ( Loxocemus ). [13] [14]

Genera

Genus [2] Taxon author [2] Species [2] Subsp. [lower-alpha 1] [2] Common nameGeographic range [1]
Antaresia Wells & Wellington, 198442Children's pythonsAustralia in arid and tropical regions
Apodora [15] Kluge, 199310Papuan pythonPapua New Guinea
Aspidites Peters, 187720pitless pythonsAustralia, except in the southern parts of the country
Bothrochilus Fitzinger, 184310 Bismarck ringed python the Bismarck Archipelago
Leiopython Hubrecht, 187930white-lipped pythonsPapua New Guinea
Liasis Gray, 184235water pythons Indonesia in the Lesser Sunda Islands, east through New Guinea and northern and western Australia
Malayopython Reynolds, 201423reticulated and Timor pythonsfrom India to Timor
Morelia Gray, 184267tree pythonsfrom Indonesia in the Maluku Islands, east through New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago, and Australia
Nyctophilopython Gow, 197710 Oenpelli python the Northern Territory, Australia
Python [lower-alpha 2] Daudin, 1803101true pythonsAfrica in the tropics south of the Sahara Desert (not including southern and extreme southwestern Madagascar), Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, the Nicobar Islands, Burma, Indochina, southern China, Hong Kong, Hainan, the Malayan region of Indonesia and the Philippines
Simalia Gray, 184960amethystine python species complexfound in Indonesia (Including the islands of Halmahera, Ambon, Seram, Maluku), the Northern Territory, northeastern Queensland into the Torres Strait, and Papua New Guinea

Relationship with humans

Poaching pythons

Poaching of pythons is a lucrative business with the global python skin trade being an estimated US$1 billion as of 2012. [16] Pythons are poached for their meat, mostly consumed locally as bushmeat and their skin, which is sent to Europe and North America for manufacture of accessories like bags, belts and shoes. [17] The demand for poaching is increased because python farming is very expensive. [18]

In Cameroon bushmeat markets, the Central African rock python is commonly sold for meat and is very expensive at US$175. [17] The poaching of the pythons is illegal in Cameroon under their wildlife law, but there is little to no enforcement. In Kenya, there has been an increase in snake farms to address the demand for snakeskin internationally, but there are health concerns for the workers, and danger due to poachers coming to the farms to hunt the snakes. [19]

Pythons and human health

While pythons are not venomous, they do carry a host of potential health issues for humans. Pythons are disease vectors for multiple illnesses, including Salmonella, Chlamydia, Leptospirosis, Aeromoniasis, Campylobacteriosis, and Zygomycosis. These diseases may be transmitted to humans through excreted waste, open wounds, and contaminated water. [20] [21] A 2013 study found that Reptile-Associated Salmonella (RAS) is most common in young children who had been in contact with invasive pythons, with symptoms including "sepsis, meningitis, and bone and joint infection". [22]

Pythons are also integrated into some aspects of African health and belief use, often with the added risk of contacting zoonotic diseases. Python bodies and blood are used for African traditional medicines and other belief uses as well, one in-depth study of all animals used by the Yorubas of Nigeria for traditional medicine found that the African Python is used to cure rheumatism, snake poison, appeasing witches, and accident prevention. [23]

Python habitats, diets, and invasion into new areas also impact human health and prosperity. A University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences study found that the Burmese python, as an invasive species, enters new habitats and eats an increasing number of mammals, leaving limited species for mosquitoes to bite, forcing them to bite disease-carrying hispid cotton rats and then infect humans with the Everglades virus, a dangerous infection that is carried by very few animals. [24] While direct human-python interactions can be potentially dangerous, the risk of zoonotic diseases is always a concern, whether considering medical and belief use in Nigeria or when addressing invasive species impacts in Florida. In 2022, a woman who lived near a lake area in south-eastern New South Wales state, Australia, is found to be infested with the Ophidascaris robertsi roundworm which is common in carpet pythons - non-venomous snakes found across much of Australia. [25]

Traditional use

Skin

Python skin has traditionally been used as the attire of choice for medicine men and healers. [26] Typically, South African Zulu traditional healers will use python skin in ceremonial regalia. [26] Pythons are viewed by the Zulu tradition to be a sign of power. This is likely why the skin is worn by traditional healers. Healers are seen as all-powerful since they have a wealth of knowledge, as well as accessibility to the ancestors. [26]

Fat

Typically, species are attributed to healing various ailments based on their likeliness to a specific bodily attribute. For example, in many cultures, the python is seen as a strong and powerful creature. As a result, pythons are often prescribed as a method of increasing strength. [26] It is very common for the body fat of pythons to be used to treat a large variation of issues such as joint pain, rheumatic pain, toothache and eye sight. [27] Additionally, python fat has been used to treat those suffering from mental illnesses like psychosis. [28] Their calm nature is thought to be of use to treat combative patients. The fat of the python is rubbed onto the body part that is in pain. To improve mental illnesses, it is often rubbed on the temple. [27] The existence of evidence for genuine anti inflammatory and anti-microbial properties of the refined 'snake oil' ironic with respect to the expression "snake oil salesman". [29]

Blood

Python blood plays another important role in traditional medicine. Many believe that python blood prevents the accumulation of fatty acids, triglycerides and lipids from reaching critically high levels. [27] Additionally, their blood has been used as a source of iron for people who are anemic, which helps reduce fatigue. [27] [The sources were not specific on the way this blood is administered; however, due to the use of snake blood in traditional treatments in other parts of the world for similar causes, it is likely that the patient drinks the blood in order to feel the effects. [30]

Feces

The Sukuma tribe of Tanzania have been known to use python feces in order to treat back pain. The feces are frequently mixed with a little water, placed on the back, and left for two to three days. [31]

Organs

In Nigeria, the gallbladder and liver of a python are used to treat poison or bites from other snakes. [23] The python head has been used to "appease witches". Many traditional African cultures believe that they can be cursed by witches. In order to reverse spells and bad luck, traditional doctors will prescribe python heads. [23]

Folklore

In northwestern Ghana, people see pythons as a savior and have taboos to prevent the snake from being harmed or eaten. Their folklore states that this is because a python once helped them flee from their enemies by transforming into a log to allow them to cross a river. [32]

In Botswana, San ritual practices surrounding pythons date back 70,000 years. In San mythology the python is a sacred creature that is highly respected. [33] They believe that mankind was made by a python that moved in between hills to create stream beds.

In Benin, Vodun practitioners believe that pythons symbolize strength and the spirit of Dagbe ["to do good" in Yoruba]. Annually, people sacrifice animals and proclaim their sins to pythons that are kept inside temples. [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snake</span> Limbless, scaly, elongate reptile

Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes. Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads. To accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have independently evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs at least twenty-five times via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless lizards. These resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boidae</span> Family of snakes

The Boidae, commonly known as boas or boids, are a family of nonvenomous snakes primarily found in the Americas, as well as Africa, Europe, Asia, and some Pacific islands. Boas include some of the world's largest snakes, with the green anaconda of South America being the heaviest and second-longest snake known; in general, adults are medium to large in size, with females usually larger than the males. Six subfamilies comprising 15 genera and 54 species are currently recognized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reticulated python</span> Species of snake

The reticulated python is a python species native to South and Southeast Asia. It is the world's longest snake, and the third heaviest after the green anaconda and Burmese python. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its wide distribution. In several countries in its range, it is hunted for its skin, for use in traditional medicine, and for sale as pets. Due to this, reticulated pythons are one of the most economically important reptiles worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ball python</span> Species of constricting snake

The ball python, also called the royal python, is a python species native to West and Central Africa, where it lives in grasslands, shrublands and open forests. This nonvenomous constrictor is the smallest of the African pythons, growing to a maximum length of 182 cm (72 in). The name "ball python" refers to its tendency to curl into a ball when stressed or frightened.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burmese python</span> Species of large, nonvenomous snake

The Burmese python is one of the largest species of snakes. It is native to a large area of Southeast Asia and is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Until 2009, it was considered a subspecies of the Indian python, but is now recognized as a distinct species. It is an invasive species in Florida as a result of the pet trade.

Constriction is a method used by several snake species to kill or subdue their prey. Although some species of venomous and mildly venomous snakes do use constriction to subdue their prey, most snakes which use constriction lack venom. The snake strikes at its prey and holds on, pulling the prey into its coils or, in the case of very large prey, pulling itself onto the prey. The snake then wraps one or two loops around the prey, forming a constriction coil. The snake monitors the prey's heartbeat to ascertain it is dead. This can be a physically demanding and potentially dangerous procedure for the snake, because its metabolism is accelerated up to sevenfold and it becomes vulnerable to attack by another predator.

<i>Xenopeltis</i> Genus of snakes

Xenopeltis, the sunbeam snakes, are the sole genus of the monotypic family Xenopeltidae, the species of which are found in Southeast Asia. Sunbeam snakes are known for their highly iridescent scales. Three species are recognized, each one with no subspecies. Studies of DNA suggest that the xenopeltids are most closely related to the Mexican burrowing python and to the true pythons (Pythonidae).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian python</span> Species of snake

The Indian python is a large python species native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is also known by the common names black-tailed python, Indian rock python, and Asian rock python. Although smaller than its close relative the Burmese python, it is still among the largest snakes in the world. It is generally lighter colored than the Burmese python and reaches usually 3 m. Like all pythons, it is nonvenomous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calabar python</span> Species of snake

The Calabar python is a species of non-venomous snake in the family Boidae. The species is endemic to West and Central Africa. It is the only species in its genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woma python</span> Species of snake

The woma python, also known commonly as Ramsay's python, the sand python, and simply the woma, is a species of snake in the family Pythonidae, endemic to Australia. Once common throughout Western Australia, it has become critically endangered in some regions.

<i>Python</i> (genus) Genus of snakes

Python is a genus of constricting snakes in the Pythonidae family native to the tropics and subtropics of the Eastern Hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central African rock python</span> Species of snake

The Central African rock python is a species of large constrictor snake in the family Pythonidae. The species is native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of 10 living species in the genus Python.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow anaconda</span> Species of reptile

The yellow anaconda, also known as the Paraguayan anaconda, is a boa species endemic to southern South America. It is one of the largest snakes in the world but smaller than its close relative, the green anaconda. No subspecies are currently recognized. Like all boas and pythons, it is non-venomous and kills its prey by constriction.

<i>Boa imperator</i> Species of snake

Boa imperator is a large and heavy-bodied arboreal species of nonvenomous, constrictor-type snake in the family Boidae. One of the most popular pet snakes in the world, B. imperator's native range is from Mexico through Central and South America, with local populations on several small Caribbean islands. It is commonly called the Central American boa, northern boa, Colombian boa, common boa and common northern boa.

Inclusion body disease (IBD) is an infectious and invariably fatal viral disease affecting captive specimens of the boid family of snakes, particularly Boa constrictor. It has been recognized since the mid-1970s. It is so named because of the characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies that are observed in clinical examinations in epidermal cells, oral mucosal epithelial cells, visceral epithelial cells, and neurons. In the 1970s and 1980s, the disease was most commonly observed in Burmese pythons. From the 1980s on, it has been most commonly observed in boa constrictors. To date, no treatment for IBD is known, and snakes that are diagnosed with IBD should generally be euthanized to prevent suffering in the snake and to reduce the risk of further infections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burmese pythons in Florida</span> Invasive species in the US state of Florida

Burmese pythons are native to Southeast Asia. However, since the end of the 20th century, they have become an established breeding population in South Florida. The earliest python sightings in Florida date back to the 1930s and although Burmese pythons were first sighted in Everglades National Park in the 1990s, they were not officially recognized as a reproducing population until 2000. Since then, the number of python sightings has exponentially increased with over 30,000 sightings from 2008 to 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boa constrictor</span> Species of snake

The boa constrictor, also known as the common boa, is a species of large, non-venomous, heavy-bodied snake that is frequently kept and bred in captivity. The boa constrictor is a member of the family Boidae. The species is native to tropical South America. A staple of private collections and public displays, its color pattern is highly variable yet distinctive. Four subspecies are recognized.

Bill CS/SB 318 is an amendment passed by the State of Florida in June 2010 which amends several sections of Chapter 379 of the Florida Statutes (F.S.). Sections 379.231, 379.372, 379.374, 379.3761, 379.401, and 379.4015 deal with wildlife regulations and were amended by this bill. Broadly, this bill seeks to regulate entities which own, import, sell and/or breed certain prohibited species of reptiles. Specifically this bill prohibits the ownership of a variety of commonly kept pythons and monitor species. Additionally, the bill provided rules for a commission to add species of reptiles to the prohibited list.

<i>Simalia tracyae</i> Species of snake

Simalia tracyae, the Halmahera python, is a species of python found only on the Indonesian island of Halmahera. It belongs to the family Pythonidae and the genus Simalia. This snake was previously believed to have belonged to the Simalia amesthistina species; however, studies in recent years have caused scientists to distinguish between the two types of snakes, resulting in the reclassification of the Halmahera python as its own species.

References

Notes

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 McDiarmid, Roy W.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Touré, T'Shaka A. (1999). Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. ISBN   978-1-893777-01-9.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 "Pythonidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System . Retrieved 9 December 2019.
  3. ↑ Constrictores Oppel, 1811 –  the available name for the taxonomic group uniting boas and pythons
  4. ↑ Patterns of postnatal ontogeny of the skull and lower jaw of snakes as revealed by micro‐CT scan data and three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics
  5. ↑ "Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on June 11, 2004. Retrieved 16 September 2007.
  6. ↑ Wang AB (29 March 2017). "An Indonesian man disappeared. Villagers found his body inside a 23-foot-long python". Washington Post. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  7. ↑ Selk A (16 June 2018). "A woman went to check her corn — and was swallowed by a python". Washington Post. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  8. ↑ Hardy DL (1994). "A re-evaluation of suffocation as the cause of death during constriction by snakes". Herpetological Review. 25 (22): 45–47.
  9. ↑ Boback SM, McCann KJ, Wood KA, McNeal PM, Blankenship EL, Zwemer CF (July 2015). "Snake constriction rapidly induces circulatory arrest in rats". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 218 (Pt 14): 2279–88. doi: 10.1242/jeb.121384 . PMID   26202779.
  10. ↑ France-Presse Agence (29 March 2017). "Giant python swallows Indonesian farmer whole". The Guardian– via www.theguardian.com.
  11. ↑ "The Keeping of Large Pythons". Anapsid. Retrieved 16 September 2007.
  12. ↑ "Large Constrictor Snake Attacks" (PDF). The Humane Society of The United States. July 2012.
  13. ↑ Pyron RA, Burbrink FT, Wiens JJ (April 2013). "A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 13: 93. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-93 . PMC   3682911 . PMID   23627680.
  14. ↑ Graham Reynolds R, Niemiller ML, Revell LJ (February 2014). "Toward a Tree-of-Life for the boas and pythons: multilocus species-level phylogeny with unprecedented taxon sampling" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 71: 201–13. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.11.011. PMID   24315866. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-12-02. Retrieved 2018-05-13.
  15. ↑ Kluge AG (December 1993). Aspidites and the phylogeny of pythonine snakes (PDF). Vol. 19. p. 77. doi:10.3853/j.0812-7387.19.1993.52. ISBN   0-7310-1164-3.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ McGrath M (2012-11-28). "Concerns raised over python trade" . Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  17. 1 2 Jensen TJ (5 September 2017). "Large snakes are on the menu at Cameroon's Nkoldongo bushmeat market". National Geographic Society Newsroom. Archived from the original on January 8, 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  18. ↑ Turk V (2014-04-02). "Snake Farms Could Tackle the Billion Dollar Black Market for Python Skin". Motherboard. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  19. ↑ Njeru G (2017-01-19). "The rising popularity of snake farms" . Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  20. ↑ "Potential Zoonoses/Hazards Associated with Reptiles" (PDF). Cornell Center for Animal Resources and Education.
  21. ↑ Ebani VV (August 2017). "Domestic reptiles as source of zoonotic bacteria: A mini review". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 10 (8): 723–728. doi: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.07.020 . hdl: 11568/880208 . PMID   28942820.
  22. ↑ Meyer Sauteur PM, Relly C, Hug M, Wittenbrink MM, Berger C (June 2013). "Risk factors for invasive reptile-associated salmonellosis in children" (PDF). Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 13 (6): 419–21. doi:10.1089/vbz.2012.1133. PMID   23473215. S2CID   1311418.
  23. 1 2 3 Soewu DA (June 2008). "Wild animals in ethnozoological practices among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria and the implications for biodiversity conservation". African Journal of Agricultural Research. 3 (6): 421–7.
  24. ↑ Hoyer IJ, Blosser EM, Acevedo C, Thompson AC, Reeves LE, Burkett-Cadena ND (October 2017). "Mammal decline, linked to invasive Burmese python, shifts host use of vector mosquito towards reservoir hosts of a zoonotic disease". Biology Letters. 13 (10): 20170353. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2017.0353. PMC   5665769 . PMID   28978755.
  25. ↑ "Live worm found in Australian woman's brain in world first". BBC News. 2023-08-29. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Alexander, Graham J.; Moshoeu, Thibedi J.; Williams, Vivienne L. (2016). "Reptiles sold as traditional medicine in Xipamanine and Xiquelene Markets (Maputo, Mozambique)". South African Journal of Science. 112 (7/8): 9. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2016/20150416 . ISSN   0038-2353.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Dasgupta SC, Gomes A, Mukherjee S (2017). "Zoo Therapeutic uses of Snake Body Parts in Folk & Traditional Medicine". Journal of Zoological Research. 1 (1): 1–9.
  28. ↑ Kajawu, Lazarus; Chingarande, Sunungurai D.; Jack, Helen; Ward, Catherine; Taylor, Tonya (2015). "What do African traditional medical practitioners do in the treatment of mental disorders in Zimbabwe?". International Journal of Culture and Mental Health. 9 (1): 44–55. doi:10.1080/17542863.2015.1106568. ISSN   1754-2863. S2CID   57728277.
  29. ↑ Falodun, A.; Owolabi, O. J.; Osahon, O. (2008). "Physicochemical, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory evaluation of fixed oil from Boa constrictor". Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica. 65 (4): 477–480. PMID   19051590.
  30. ↑ Fita DS, Costa Neto EM, Schiavetti A (March 2010). "'Offensive' snakes: cultural beliefs and practices related to snakebites in a Brazilian rural settlement". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 6: 13. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-6-13 . PMC   2853519 . PMID   20346120.
  31. ↑ Vats R, Thomas S (May 2015). "A study on use of animals as traditional medicine by Sukuma Tribe of Busega District in North-western Tanzania". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 11 (1): 38. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0001-y . PMC   4472419 . PMID   25947365.
  32. ↑ Diawuo F, Issifu AK (December 2015). "Exploring the African traditional belief systems in natural resource conservation and management in Ghana" (PDF). The Journal of Pan African Studies. 8 (9): 115–31.
  33. ↑ Vogt Y. "World's oldest ritual discovered. Worshipped the python 70,000 years ago". Apollon. University of Oslo. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  34. ↑ Fihlani, Pumza (2017-09-01). "Has voodoo been misjudged?" . Retrieved 2019-05-19.


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