Elapidae

Last updated

Contents

Elapidae
King-Cobra.jpg
Sinomicrurus macclellandi (cropped).jpg
Black Mamba 01.jpg
Fierce Snake-Oxyuranus microlepidotus.jpg
From the top left clockwise: king cobra, oriental coral snake, inland taipan and black mamba
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Superfamily: Elapoidea
Family: Elapidae
F. Boie, 1827
Subfamilies and genera [lower-alpha 1]

Elapidae ( /əˈlæpədiː/ , commonly known as elapids /ˈɛləpədz/ ; Ancient Greek : ἔλλοψéllops "sea-fish") [6] is a family of snakes characterized by their permanently erect fangs at the front of the mouth. Most elapids are venomous, with the exception of the genus Emydocephalus . Many members of this family exhibit a threat display of rearing upwards while spreading out a neck flap. Elapids are endemic to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, with terrestrial forms in Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Americas and marine forms in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Members of the family have a wide range of sizes, from the 18 cm (7.1 in) white-lipped snake to the 5.85 m (19 ft 2 in) king cobra. Most species have neurotoxic venom that is channeled by their hollow fangs, and some may contain other toxic components in various proportions. The family includes 55 genera with around 360 species and over 170 subspecies.

Description

Terrestrial elapids look similar to the Colubridae; almost all have long, slender bodies with smooth scales, a head covered with large shields (and not always distinct from the neck), and eyes with rounded pupils. Also like colubrids, their behavior is usually quite active and fast, with most of the females being oviparous (egg-layers). Exceptions to these generalizations occur; for example, certain adders ( Acanthophis ) have commonalities with the Viperidae family, such as shorter, stout bodies, rough/keeled scales, broad heads, cat-like pupils and ovoviviparous (internal hatchings with live births). Furthermore, they can also be sluggish, ambush predators with partially fragmented head shields, similar to rattlesnakes or Gaboon vipers.

Sea snakes (the Hydrophiinae), sometimes considered to be a separate family, have adapted to a marine way of life in different ways and to various degrees. All have evolved paddle-like tails for swimming and the ability to excrete salt. Most also have laterally compressed bodies, their ventral scales are much reduced in size, their nostrils are located dorsally (no internasal scales), and they give birth to live young (viviparity). The reduction in ventral scaling has greatly diminished their terrestrial mobility, but aids in swimming.

Members of this family have a wide range of sizes. Drysdalia species are small serpents typically 50 cm (20 in) and down to 18 cm (7.1 in) in length. Cobras, mambas, and taipans are mid- to large sized snakes which can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) or above. The king cobra is the world's longest venomous snake with a maximum length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft) and an average mass of 6 kg (13 lb). [7]

Dentition

The lateral view of a king cobra's skull showing fangs Ophiophagus hannah skull.jpg
The lateral view of a king cobra's skull showing fangs

All elapids have a pair of proteroglyphous fangs to inject venom from glands located towards the rear of the upper jaw (except for the genus Emydocephalus , in which fangs are present as a vestigial feature but without venom production, as they have specialized toward a fish egg diet, making them the only non-venomous elapids). The fangs, which are enlarged and hollow, are the first two teeth on each maxillary bone. Usually only one fang is in place on each side at any time. The maxilla is intermediate in both length and mobility between typical colubrids (long, less mobile) and viperids (very short, highly mobile). When the mouth is closed, the fangs fit into grooved slots in the buccal floor and usually below the front edge of the eye and are angled backwards; some elapids (Acanthophis, taipan, mamba, and king cobra) have long fangs on quite mobile maxillae and can make fast strikes. A few species are capable of spraying their venom from forward-facing holes in their fangs for defense, as exemplified by spitting cobras.

Behavior

Most elapids are terrestrial, while some are strongly arboreal (African Pseudohaje and Dendroaspis , Australian Hoplocephalus ). Many species are more or less specialized burrowers (e.g. Ogmodon , Parapistocalamus , Simoselaps , Toxicocalamus , and Vermicella ) in either humid or arid environments. Some species have very generalised diets (euryphagy), but many taxa have narrow prey preferences (stenophagy) and correlated morphological specializations, for example feeding almost exclusively on other serpents (especially the king cobra and kraits). Elapids may display a series of warning signs if provoked, either obviously or subtly. Cobras and mambas lift their inferior body parts, expand hoods, and hiss if threatened; kraits often curl up before hiding their heads down their bodies.

In general, sea snakes are able to respire through their skin. Experiments with the yellow-bellied sea snake, Hydrophis platurus , have shown that this species can satisfy about 20% of its oxygen requirements in this manner, allowing for prolonged dives. The sea kraits (Laticauda spp.) are the sea snakes least adapted to aquatic life. Their bodies are less compressed laterally, and they have thicker bodies and ventral scaling. Because of this, they are capable of some land movement. They spend much of their time on land, where they lay their eggs and digest prey.

Distribution

Terrestrial elapids are found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. Most prefer humid tropical environments, though there are many that can still be found in arid environments. Sea snakes occur mainly in the Indian Ocean and the south-west Pacific. They occupy coastal waters and shallows, and are common in coral reefs. However, the range of Hydrophis platurus extends across the Pacific to the coasts of Central and South America. [8]

Venom

Venoms of species in the Elapidae are mainly neurotoxic for immobilizing prey and defense. The main group of toxins are PLA2 and three-finger toxins (3FTx). Other toxic components in some species comprise cardiotoxins and cytotoxins, which cause heart dysfunctions and cellular damage, respectively. Cobra venom also contains hemotoxins which clot or solidify blood. Most members are venomous to varying extents, and some are considered among the world's most venomous snakes based upon their murine LD50 values, such as the taipans. [9] Large species, mambas and cobras included, are dangerous for their capability of injecting high quantities of venom upon single envenomation and/or striking at a high position proximal to the victim's brain, which is vulnerable to neurotoxicity. Antivenom is promptly required to be administered if bitten by any elapids. Specific antivenoms are the only cure to treat elapidae bites. There are commercial monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for cobras, mambas, and some other important elapids. Recently, experimental antivenoms based on recombinant toxins have shown that it is feasible to create antivenoms with a wide spectrum of coverage. [10]

The venom of spitting cobras is more cytotoxic rather than neurotoxic. It damages local cells, especially those in eyes, which are deliberately targeted by the snakes. The venom may cause intense pain on contact with the eye and may lead to blindness. It is not lethal on skin if no wound provides any chance for the toxins to enter the bloodstream. [11]

Taxonomy

The table below lists out all of the elapid genera and no subfamilies. In the past, many subfamilies were recognized, or have been suggested for the Elapidae, including the Elapinae, Hydrophiinae (sea snakes), Micrurinae (coral snakes), Acanthophiinae (Australian elapids), and the Laticaudinae (sea kraits). Currently, none are universally recognized. Molecular evidence via techniques like karyotyping, protein electrophoretic analyses, immunological distance and DNA sequencing, suggests reciprocal monophyly of two groups: African, Asian, and New World Elapinae versus Australasian and marine Hydrophiinae. The Australian terrestrial elapids are technically 'hydrophiines', although they are not sea snakes. It is believed that the Laticauda and the 'true sea snakes' evolved separately from Australasian land snakes. Asian cobras, coral snakes, and American coral snakes also appear to be monophyletic, while African cobras do not. [12] [13]

The type genus for the Elapidae was originally Elaps, but the group was moved to another family. In contrast to what is typical of botany, the family Elapidae was not renamed. In the meantime, Elaps was renamed Homoroselaps and moved back to the Elapidae. However, Nagy et al. (2005) regard it as a sister taxon to Atractaspis, which should have been assigned to the Atractaspididae.

Genus [14] Taxon
author [14] 		Species [14] Subspecies* [14] Common
name		Geographic
range [8]
Acanthophis Daudin, 180380death addersAustralia, New Guinea, Indonesia (Seram Island and Tanimbar)
Aipysurus Lacépède, 180471olive sea snakes Timor Sea, South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, and coasts of Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, southern New Guinea, Indonesia, western Malaysia and Vietnam
Antaioserpens Wells & Wellington, 198520burrowing snakes Australia
Aspidelaps Fitzinger, 184324shieldnose cobras South Africa (Cape Province, Transvaal), Namibia, southern Angola, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique
Aspidomorphus Fitzinger, 184333collared adders New Guinea
Austrelaps Worrell, 196330Australian copperheadsAustralia (South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania)
Brachyurophis Günther, 186370shovel-nosed snakesAustralia
Bungarus Daudin, 1803124kraitsIndia (incl. Andaman Islands), Myanmar, Nepal, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Bali, Sulawesi), Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand
Cacophis Günther, 186340rainforest crowned snakesAustralia (New South Wales, Queensland)
Calliophis Gray, 18341511Oriental coral snakesIndia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Brunei, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, southern China, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Taiwan
Cryptophis Worrell, 196150 Australia and Papua New Guinea
Demansia Gray, 184292whipsnakesNew Guinea, continental Australia
Dendroaspis Schlegel, 184841mambasSub-Saharan Africa
Denisonia Krefft, 186920ornamental snakesCentral Queensland and central northern New South Wales, Australia
Drysdalia Worrell, 196130southeastern grass snakesSouthern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales)
Echiopsis Fitzinger, 184310bardickSouthern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales)
Elapognathus Boulenger, 189620southwestern grass snakesWestern Australia
Elapsoidea Bocage, 1866107African or venomous garter snakes (not related to North American garter snakes, which are harmless to humans)Sub-Saharan Africa
Emydocephalus Krefft, 186930turtlehead sea snakesThe coasts of Timor (Indonesian Sea), New Caledonia, Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), and in the Southeast Asian Sea along the coasts of China, Taiwan, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands
Ephalophis M.A. Smith, 193110Grey's mudsnake/ mangrove sea snakeNorthwestern Australia
Furina A.M.C. Duméril, 185350pale-naped snakesMainland Australia, southern New Guinea, Aru Islands
Hemachatus Fleming, 182210rinkhals/ring-necked spitting cobraSouth Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Eswatini
Hemiaspis Fitzinger, 186120swamp snakesEastern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland)
Hemibungarus W. Peters, 186230Barred coral snakesPhilippines (Luzon, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Mindoro, Catanduanes, Polillo is.)
Hoplocephalus Wagler, 183030broad-headed snakesEastern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland)
Hydrelaps Boulenger, 189610Port Darwin mudsnakeNorthern Australia, southern New Guinea
Hydrophis Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801343sea snakesIndoaustralian and Southeast Asian waters. [15]
Incongruelaps †10 Riversleigh, Australia [16]
Laticauda Laurenti, 176850sea kraitsSoutheast Asian and Indo-Australian waters
Loveridgelaps McDowell, 197010Solomons small-eyed snakeSolomon Islands
Microcephalophis Lesson, 183210narrow-headed sea snake, graceful small-headed slender seasnake, common small-headed sea snakeon the coasts of the Indian Ocean and West Pacific, from around the Persian Gulf (Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Iran, Iraq and Kuwait) to Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia, and into the Malay Archipelago/West Pacific in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Philippines, southern China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, as well as in Australia (Queensland) and Papua New Guinea
Micropechis Boulenger, 189610New Guinea small-eyed snakeNew Guinea
Micruroides K.P. Schmidt, 192812Western coral snakesUnited States (Arizona, southwestern New Mexico), Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa)
Micrurus Wagler, 18248351coral snakesSouthern North America, South America
Naja Laurenti, 1768393cobrasAfrica, Asia
Neelaps (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)20Australia
Notechis Boulenger, 189620tiger snakesSouthern Australia, including many offshore islands
Ogmodon W. Peters, 186410bolaFiji
Ophiophagus Günther, 186410King cobraBangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, India, Andaman Islands, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, western Malaysia, the Philippines
Oxyuranus Kinghorn, 192332taipansAustralia, New Guinea
Parahydrophis Burger & Natsuno, 197410Northern mangrove sea snakeNorthern Australia, southern New Guinea
Parapistocalamus Roux, 193410Hediger's snakeBougainville Island, Solomons
Paroplocephalus Keogh, Scott & Scanlon, 200010Lake Cronin snakeWestern Australia
Pseudechis Wagler, 183070black snakes (and king brown)Australia
Pseudohaje Günther, 185820tree cobrasAngola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Togo, Nigeria
Pseudonaja Günther, 185882venomous brown snakes (and dugites)Australia
Rhinoplocephalus F. Müller, 188510Müller's snakeWestern Australia
Salomonelaps McDowell, 197010Solomons coral snakeSolomon Islands
Simoselaps Jan, 1859133Australian coral snakesMainland Australia
Sinomicrurus Slowinski, Boundy & Lawson, 200186Asia
Suta Worrell, 1961110hooded snakes (and curl snake)Australia
Thalassophis P. Schmidt, 185210anomalous sea snakeSouth Chinese Sea (Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand), Indian Ocean (Sumatra, Java, Borneo)
Toxicocalamus Boulenger, 1896110New Guinea forest snakesNew Guinea (and nearby islands)
Tropidechis Günther, 186310rough-scaled snakeEastern Australia
Vermicella Gray in Günther, 185860bandy-bandiesAustralia
Walterinnesia Lataste, 18872 [17] 0black desert cobraEgypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Turkey [18]

* Not including the nominate subspecies

Conservation

With the dangers the taxa presents given their venomous nature it is very difficult for activists and conservationists alike to get species on protection lists such as the IUCN red-list and CITES Apenndix lists. Some of the protected species are:

This however does not touch the number of elapidae that are under threat, for instance 9% of elapid sea snakes are threatened with another 6% near-threatened. [19] A rather large road block that stands in the way of more species being put under protection is lack of knowledge of the taxa; many known species have little research done on their behaviors or actual population as they live in very remote areas or live in habitats that are so vast its nearly impossible to conduct population studies, like the sea snakes.

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ The elapids in the past were considered to have two subfamilies–the Elapinae made of terrestrial species and Hydrophiinae made of the marine species. [1] In 1997, Slowinski, Knight and Rooney found in their phylogenetic analysis using amino acid sequences from venom proteins, that the Australasian terrestrial species nested within Hydrophiinae. This led to removing the Australasian terrestrial species and placing them in the Hydrophiinae. [2] [1] This has been support in subsequent recent genomic analyses, though these same studies also found the subfamily Elapinae to be paraphyletic in respect to the Hydrophiinae. [3] [4] [5] These studies have found coral snakes, cobras and mambas, kraits, and African gartersnakes forming successive outgroups to Hydrophiinae. [4] [5] Since there are available clade names for these groups (with the exception of Elapsoidea), it is ideal to bring back the subfamilies Calliophiinae, Micrurinae, Najinae, and Bungarinae.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King cobra</span> Venomous snake species from Asia

The king cobra is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. The sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, it is not taxonomically a true cobra, despite its common name and some resemblance. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft), it is the world's longest venomous snake. The species has diversified colouration across habitats, from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen, with a range spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including those of its own kind. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mamba</span> Genus of venomous snakes

Mambas are fast-moving, highly venomous snakes of the genus Dendroaspis in the family Elapidae. Four extant species are recognised currently; three of those four species are essentially arboreal and green in colour, whereas the black mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis, is largely terrestrial and generally brown or grey in colour. All are native to various regions in sub-Saharan Africa and all are feared throughout their ranges, especially the black mamba. In Africa there are many legends and stories about mambas.

<i>Bungarus</i> Genus of venomous snakes

Bungarus is a genus of elapids native to Asia. Often found on the floor of tropical forests in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Southern China, they are medium-sized, highly venomous snakes with a length typically not exceeding 2 metres. These are nocturnal ophiophagious predators which prey primarily on other snakes at night, occasionally taking lizards, amphibians and rodents. Most species are with banded patterns acting as a warning sign to their predators. Despite being considered as generally docile and timid, kraits are capable of delivering highly potent neurotoxic venom which is medically significant with potential lethality to humans. The genus currently holds 16 species and 5 subspecies.

<i>Acanthophis</i> Genus of elapid snakes commonly called death adders

Acanthophis is a genus of elapid snakes. Commonly called death adders, they are native to Australia, New Guinea and nearby islands, and are among the most venomous snakes in the world. Despite their common name, they are not adders at all and belong to the Elapidae family. The name of the genus derives from the Ancient Greek akanthos/ἄκανθος ('spine') and ophis/ὄφις ('snake'), referring to the spine on the death adder's tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taipan</span> Genus of snakes

Taipans are snakes of the genus Oxyuranus in the elapid family. They are large, fast-moving, highly venomous, and endemic to Australia and New Guinea. Three species are recognised, one of which, the coastal taipan, has two subspecies. Taipans are some of the deadliest known snakes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snakebite</span> Injury caused by bite from snakes

A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occur. This may result in redness, swelling, and severe pain at the area, which may take up to an hour to appear. Vomiting, blurred vision, tingling of the limbs, and sweating may result. Most bites are on the hands, arms, or legs. Fear following a bite is common with symptoms of a racing heart and feeling faint. The venom may cause bleeding, kidney failure, a severe allergic reaction, tissue death around the bite, or breathing problems. Bites may result in the loss of a limb or other chronic problems or even death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snake venom</span> Highly modified saliva containing zootoxins

Snake venom is a highly toxic saliva containing zootoxins that facilitates in the immobilization and digestion of prey. This also provides defense against threats. Snake venom is injected by unique fangs during a bite, whereas some species are also able to spit venom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spitting cobra</span> Common name for several snakes

A ”spitting” cobra is any of several species of cobra that can intentionally, defensively shoot their venom directly from their fangs. This substance has two functions, with the first being as venom that can be absorbed via the victim’s eyes, mouth, or nose, and secondly as a toxungen, which can be sprayed on the target surface. Their ability to target and shoot venom is utilised in several different ways, self-defense being the most common instance. Studies have shown that the targets are far from random; rather, spitting cobras consciously take aim, directing their spray as close as possible to the eyes and face of an aggressor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caspian cobra</span> Species of snake

The Caspian cobra, also called the Central Asian cobra or Russian cobra, is a species of highly venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to Central Asia. First described by Karl Eichwald, a German physician, in 1831, it was for many years considered to be a subspecies of the Naja naja until genetic analysis revealed it to be a distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venomous snake</span> Species of the suborder Serpentes that produce venom

Venomous snakes are species of the suborder Serpentes that are capable of producing venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The venom is typically delivered by injection using hollow or grooved fangs, although some venomous snakes lack well-developed fangs. Common venomous snakes include the families Elapidae, Viperidae, Atractaspididae, and some of the Colubridae. The toxicity of venom is mainly indicated by murine LD50, while multiple factors are considered to judge the potential danger to humans. Other important factors for risk assessment include the likelihood that a snake will bite, the quantity of venom delivered with the bite, the efficiency of the delivery mechanism, and the location of a bite on the body of the victim. Snake venom may have both neurotoxic and hemotoxic properties. There are about 600 venomous snake species in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea snake</span> Subfamily of reptiles

Sea snakes, or coral reef snakes, are elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives. They belong to two subfamilies, Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae. Hydrophiinae also includes Australasian terrestrial snakes, whereas Laticaudinae only includes the sea kraits (Laticauda), of which three species are found exclusively in freshwater. If these three freshwater species are excluded, there are 69 species of sea snakes divided between seven genera.

<i>Naja</i> Genus of snakes

Naja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes commonly known as cobras. Members of the genus Naja are the most widespread and the most widely recognized as "true" cobras. Various species occur in regions throughout Africa, Southwest Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several other elapid species are also called "cobras", such as the king cobra and the rinkhals, but neither is a true cobra, in that they do not belong to the genus Naja, but instead each belong to monotypic genera Hemachatus and Ophiophagus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea krait</span> Genus of snakes

Sea kraits are a genus of venomous elapid sea snakes, Laticauda. They are semiaquatic, and retain the wide ventral scales typical of terrestrial snakes for moving on land, but also have paddle-shaped tails for swimming. Unlike fully aquatic ovoviviparous sea snakes, sea kraits are oviparous and must come to land to digest prey and lay eggs. They also have independent evolutionary origins into aquatic habitats, with sea kraits diverging earlier from other Australasian elapids. Thus, sea kraits and sea snakes are an example of convergent evolution into aquatic habitats within the Hydrophiinae snakes. Sea kraits are also often confused with land kraits , which are not aquatic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal taipan</span> Venomous snake species native to Australia

The coastal taipan, or common taipan, is a species of extremely venomous snake in the family Elapidae. Described by Wilhelm Peters in 1867, the species is native to the coastal regions of northern and eastern Australia and the island of New Guinea. The second-longest venomous snake in Australia, the coastal taipan averages around 2.0 m (6.6 ft) long, with the longest specimens reaching 2.9 m (9.5 ft) in length. It has light olive or reddish-brown upperparts, with paler underparts. The snake is considered to be a least-concern species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of snakebites</span>

Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,700 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans. Snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. There are two major families of venomous snakes, Elapidae and Viperidae. 325 species in 61 genera are recognized in the family Elapidae and 224 species in 22 genera are recognized in the family Viperidae, In addition, the most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the colubrids, has approximately 700 venomous species, but only five genera—boomslangs, twig snakes, keelback snakes, green snakes, and slender snakes—have caused human fatalities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of snake venom</span> Origin and diversification of snake venom through geologic time

Venom in snakes and some lizards is a form of saliva that has been modified into venom over its evolutionary history. In snakes, venom has evolved to kill or subdue prey, as well as to perform other diet-related functions. While snakes occasionally use their venom in self defense, this is not believed to have had a strong effect on venom evolution. The evolution of venom is thought to be responsible for the enormous expansion of snakes across the globe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Speckled brown snake</span> Highly venomous snake native to northeastern Australia

The speckled brown snake or spotted brown snake is a species of venomous elapid snake native to northeastern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elapoidea</span> Superfamily of snakes

The Elapoidea are a superfamily of snakes in the clade Colubroides, traditionally comprising the families Lamprophiidae and Elapidae. Advanced genomic sequence studies, however, have found lamprophiids to be paraphyletic in respect to elapids, and anywhere between four and nine families are now recognized.

References

  1. 1 2 Mattison C (2007). The New Encyclopedia of Snakes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 272 pp. ISBN   978-0-691-13295-2.
  2. ↑ Slowinski, Joseph B.; Knight, Alec; Rooney, Alejandro P. (1997). "Inferring species trees from gene trees: a phylogenetic analysis of the Elapidae (Serpentes) based on the amino acid sequences of venom proteins". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 8 (3): 349–62. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.324.3013 . doi:10.1006/mpev.1997.0434. PMID   9417893.
  3. ↑ Pyron RA, Burbrink FT, Wiens JJ (2013). "A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 13 (1): 93. Bibcode:2013BMCEE..13...93P. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-93 . PMC   3682911 . PMID   23627680.
  4. 1 2 Lee MS, Sanders KL, King B, Palci A (2016). "Diversification rates and phenotypic evolution in venomous snakes (Elapidae)". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (1): 150277. Bibcode:2016RSOS....350277L. doi:10.1098/rsos.150277. PMC   4736917 . PMID   26909162.
  5. 1 2 Figueroa A, McKelvy AD, Grismer LL, Bell CD, Lailvaux SP (2016). "A Species-Level Phylogeny of Extant Snakes with Description of a New Colubrid Subfamily and Genus". PLOS ONE. 11 (9): e0161070. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1161070F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161070 . PMC   5014348 . PMID   27603205.
  6. ↑ "Definition of 'elapid'". dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
  7. ↑ Chanhome L, Cox MJ, Vasaruchapong T, Chaiyabutr N, Sitprija V (June 2011). "Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand". Asian Biomedicine. 5 (3): 311–28. doi:10.5372/1905-7415.0503.043 (inactive 31 January 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
  8. 1 2 Elapidae at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database . Accessed 3 November 2008.
  9. ↑ Thomas S, Griessel E (Dec 1999). "LD50 Scores for various snakes". Archived from the original on 1 February 2012.
  10. ↑ de la Rosa G, Olvera F, Archundia IG, Lomonte B, Alagón A, Corzo G (August 2019). "Horse immunization with short-chain consensus α-neurotoxin generates antibodies against broad spectrum of elapid venomous species". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 3642. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.3642D. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11639-2. PMC   6692343 . PMID   31409779.
  11. ↑ Regional Office for Africa, World Health Organization (2010). "Guidelines for the Prevention and Clinical Management of Snakebite in Africa". Archived from the original on March 25, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2021.
  12. ↑ Slowinski JB, Keogh JS (April 2000). "Phylogenetic relationships of elapid snakes based on cytochrome b mtDNA sequences" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 15 (1): 157–64. doi:10.1006/mpev.1999.0725. PMID   10764543. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-03-14. Retrieved 2019-10-14.
  13. ↑ Williams D, Wüster W, Fry BG (December 2006). "The good, the bad and the ugly: Australian snake taxonomists and a history of the taxonomy of Australia's venomous snakes" (PDF). Toxicon. 48 (7): 919–30. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.016. PMID   16999982. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2010-09-18.
  14. 1 2 3 4 "Elapidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System . Retrieved 27 November 2006.
  15. ↑ The Hydrophiidae Archived 2007-07-02 at the Wayback Machine at Cyberlizard's home pages Archived 2007-11-24 at the Wayback Machine . Accessed [12 August] [2007].
  16. ↑ Scanlon J,Lee M, Archer M, 2002, Mid-Tertiary elapid snakes (Squamata, Colubroidea) from Riversleigh, northern Australia: early steps in a continent-wide adaptive radiation, Geobios 36 (2003) 573–601 Archived 2019-03-12 at the Wayback Machine .
  17. ↑ Nilson G, Rastegar-Pouyani N (2007). "Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste, 1887 (Ophidia: Elapidae) and the status of Naja morgani Mocquard, 1905". Russian Journal of Herpetology14: 7-14.
  18. ↑ Ugurtas IH, Papenfuss TJ, Orlov NL (2001). "New record of Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste, 1887 (Ophidia: Elapidae: Bungarinae) in Turkey". Russian Journal of Herpetology8 (3): 239-245.
  19. ↑ Eifes, C.T. & Livingstone 2013.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.