This article lists the Human Development Index (HDI) rating of the States and union territories of India.
HDI is a composite index that takes into consideration health, education and income.
The national average HDI for India in 2008 was 0.467. [1] By 2010, its average HDI had risen to 0.519. [2] [3] UNDP, the sponsor of the Human Development Index methodology since 1990, reported India's HDI to be 0.554 for 2012, [4] an 18% increase over its 2008 HDI. The United Nations declared India's HDI to be 0.586 in 2014, [5] a 5.77% increase over 2012. As for the year 2018, HDI for India stood at 0.645. [6] [7] [8]
The following values are estimates from 2021 calculated by Global Data Lab, [9] using the same method of calculation as UNDP. [10] It is important to note that other sources report different HDI rankings (typically higher).
Rank | State/Union Territory | HDI (2021) |
---|---|---|
Very High Human Development | ||
1 | Kerala | 0.752 |
2 | Goa | 0.751 |
3 | Chandigarh | 0.744 |
4 | Delhi | 0.730 |
5 | Puducherry | 0.726 |
6 | Lakshadweep | 0.715 |
7 | Himachal Pradesh | 0.703 |
8 | Sikkim | 0.702 |
Medium Human Development | ||
9 | Jammu and Kashmir | 0.699 |
10 | Punjab | 0.694 |
11 | Haryana | 0.691 |
12 | Maharashtra | 0.688 |
13 | Mizoram | |
14 | Tamil Nadu | 0.686 |
15 | Manipur | 0.678 |
16 | Uttarakhand | 0.672 |
17 | Nagaland | 0.670 |
18 | Karnataka | 0.667 |
19 | Arunachal Pradesh | 0.665 |
20 | Daman and Diu | 0.661 |
21 | Telangana | 0.647 |
22 | Meghalaya | 0.643 |
23 | Rajasthan | 0.638 |
24 | Gujarat | 0.638 |
– | India (average) | 0.633 |
25 | Andhra Pradesh | 0.630 |
26 | Tripura | 0.629 |
27 | West Bengal | 0.624 |
28 | Dadra and Nagar Haveli | 0.620 |
29 | Chhattisgarh | 0.605 |
30 | Assam | 0.597 |
31 | Odisha | |
32 | Madhya Pradesh | 0.596 |
33 | Uttar Pradesh | 0.592 |
34 | Jharkhand | 0.589 |
35 | Bihar | 0.571 |
The following values are estimates from 2017 to 2018 calculated by the National Statistical Commission (NSC) of India. [11] These values were calculated based on a modified version of the UNDP method of calculation, using per-capita Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) in the national currency to measure the "decent standard of living" component of HDI, rather than per-capita Gross National Income (GNI) in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) US dollars. [12] [13]
Rank | State/Union Territory | HDI (2017–2018) |
---|---|---|
Very High Human Development | ||
1 | Delhi | 0.839 |
2 | Chandigarh | 0.827 |
3 | Goa | 0.806 |
High Human Development | ||
4 | Kerala | 0.775 |
5 | Sikkim | 0.764 |
6 | Himachal Pradesh | 0.761 |
7 | Uttarakhand | 0.758 |
8 | Puducherry | 0.752 |
9 | Maharashtra | 0.750 |
10 | Mizoram | 0.747 |
11 | Tamil Nadu | 0.738 |
12 | Punjab | 0.738 |
13 | Haryana | 0.724 |
14 | Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 0.707 |
15 | Karnataka | 0.706 |
16 | Telangana | 0.705 |
17 | Meghalaya | 0.704 |
Medium Human Development | ||
18 | Gujarat | 0.698 |
19 | Daman and Diu | 0.695 |
20 | Lakshadweep | 0.687 |
21 | Manipur | 0.686 |
22 | Arunachal Pradesh | 0.684 |
23 | Nagaland | 0.678 |
24 | West Bengal | 0.674 |
– | India (average) | 0.672 |
25 | Tripura | 0.667 |
26 | Jammu and Kashmir | 0.663 |
27 | Dadra and Nagar Haveli | 0.662 |
28 | Assam | 0.651 |
29 | Odisha | 0.649 |
30 | Andhra Pradesh | 0.648 |
31 | Rajasthan | 0.638 |
32 | Chhattisgarh | 0.629 |
33 | Jharkhand | 0.618 |
34 | Madhya Pradesh | 0.616 |
35 | Uttar Pradesh | 0.592 |
36 | Bihar | 0.551 |
Human Development Index (by UN Method) of Indian states since 1990 (2019 revision). [14]
State | HDI | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1990 | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2019 | |
Northern India | |||||||
Chandigarh | 0.635 | 0.635 | 0.630 | 0.658 | 0.643 | 0.737 | 0.759 |
New Delhi | 0.580 | 0.615 | 0.657 | 0.685 | 0.702 | 0.734 | 0.744 |
Haryana | 0.471 | 0.501 | 0.543 | 0.587 | 0.628 | 0.689 | 0.704 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.484 | 0.526 | 0.584 | 0.641 | 0.661 | 0.707 | 0.717 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.498 | 0.508 | 0.523 | 0.583 | 0.636 | 0.677 | 0.712 |
Madhya Pradesh | 0.407 | 0.427 | 0.453 | 0.495 | 0.531 | 0.585 | 0.607 |
Punjab | 0.501 | 0.533 | 0.573 | 0.69 | 0.651 | 0.706 | 0.707 |
Uttar Pradesh | 0.398 | 0.423 | 0.456 | 0.498 | 0.528 | 0.577 | 0.603 |
Uttarakhand | 0.627 | 0.626 | 0.621 | 0.650 | 0.634 | 0.666 | 0.684 |
Western India | |||||||
Dadra and Nagar Haveli | 0.672 | 0.673 | 0.673 | 0.702 | 0.688 | 0.665 | 0.631 |
Daman and Diu | 0.651 | 0.652 | 0.655 | 0.682 | 0.669 | 0.693 | 0.674 |
Goa | 0.557 | 0.578 | 0.609 | 0.668 | 0.731 | 0.758 | 0.765 |
Gujarat | 0.474 | 0.493 | 0.521 | 0.569 | 0.599 | 0.654 | 0.650 |
Maharashtra | 0.498 | 0.521 | 0.552 | 0.598 | 0.638 | 0.683 | 0.701 |
Rajasthan | 0.406 | 0.431 | 0.463 | 0.505 | 0.542 | 0.606 | 0.650 |
Eastern India | |||||||
Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 0.685 | 0.685 | 0.686 | 0.714 | 0.700 | 0.726 | 0.719 |
West Bengal | 0.443 | 0.468 | 0.500 | 0.534 | 0.567 | 0.622 | 0.636 |
Bihar | 0.379 | 0.402 | 0.430 | 0.465 | 0.508 | 0.558 | 0.581 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.562 | 0.559 | 0.555 | 0.581 | 0.566 | 0.595 | 0.617 |
Jharkhand | 0.562 | 0.560 | 0.555 | 0.582 | 0.567 | 0.585 | 0.600 |
Odisha | 0.402 | 0.424 | 0.452 | 0.489 | 0.529 | 0.586 | 0.608 |
Northeastern India | |||||||
Assam | 0.412 | 0.442 | 0.482 | 0.526 | 0.560 | 0.599 | 0.609 |
Arunachal Pradesh | 0.442 | 0.467 | 0.497 | 0.530 | 0.635 | 0.664 | 0.677 |
Manipur | 0.499 | 0.522 | 0.553 | 0.593 | 0.674 | 0.698 | 0.691 |
Meghalaya | 0.461 | 0.465 | 0.471 | 0.528 | 0.613 | 0.651 | 0.654 |
Mizoram | 0.531 | 0.544 | 0.564 | 0.626 | 0.679 | 0.700 | 0.701 |
Nagaland | 0.539 | 0.531 | 0.518 | 0.553 | 0.654 | 0.682 | 0.683 |
Sikkim | 0.546 | 0.543 | 0.543 | 0.587 | 0.628 | 0.695 | 0.715 |
Tripura | 0.449 | 0.483 | 0.525 | 0.557 | 0.602 | 0.646 | 0.640 |
Southern India | |||||||
Andhra Pradesh | 0.427 | 0.446 | 0.473 | 0.526 | 0.574 | 0.631 | 0.642 |
Karnataka | 0.447 | 0.474 | 0.512 | 0.561 | 0.599 | 0.662 | 0.679 |
Kerala | 0.550 | 0.565 | 0.593 | 0.675 | 0.709 | 0.763 | 0.766 |
Lakshadweep | 0.694 | 0.694 | 0.695 | 0.724 | 0.710 | 0.735 | 0.728 |
Puducherry | 0.711 | 0.720 | 0.720 | 0.750 | 0.736 | 0.734 | 0.739 |
Tamil Nadu | 0.475 | 0.500 | 0.537 | 0.596 | 0.641 | 0.693 | 0.699 |
Telangana | 0.624 | 0.621 | 0.618 | 0.646 | 0.631 | 0.654 | 0.658 |
India | 0.434 | 0.458 | 0.491 | 0.534 | 0.575 | 0.629 | 0.645 |
Compared with the previous Indian National Human Development Reports and the latest state-level government statistical report, India has significantly improved its HDI in all of its administrative subdivisions:
Legend | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Very High/High Human Development Index 0.850–0.899 0.800–0.849 0.750–0.799 0.700–0.749 | Medium human development index 0.650–0.699 0.600–0.649 0.550–0.599 0.500–0.549 | Low human development index 0.450–0.499 0.400–0.449 0.350–0.399 0.300–0.349 0.250–0.299 ≤0.250 | Lack of information |
This is a list of Indian states by their respective Human Development Index (HDI), as of 2008. [1] Kerala stands first in Human Development Index among the states in India.
There are many ways to calculate HDI, and its calculation is sensitive to base data and assumptions. Using another approach, UNDP India and Government of India calculated the HDI nationwide average to be 0.605 in 2006. [16] This data was published by the Indian Government. [1] Note that the 2007-2008 HDI values in the table below is not based on income as is the UNDP standard practice for global comparisons, but on estimated consumption expenditure – an assumption which underestimates the HDI compared to the actual value. [17] Further, data was unavailable for the following union territories: Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Daman and Diu, Puducherry, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. [18] [19]
Rank | State/Union Territory | HDI |
---|---|---|
1 | Kerala | 0.810 |
2 | Delhi | 0.750 |
3 | Himachal Pradesh | 0.652 |
4 | Goa | 0.617 |
5 | Punjab | 0.605 |
6 | Northeast India | 0.573 |
7 | Maharashtra | 0.572 |
8 | Tamil Nadu | 0.570 |
9 | Haryana | 0.552 |
10 | Jammu and Kashmir | 0.542 |
11 | Gujarat | 0.527 |
12 | Karnataka | 0.519 |
– | National average | 0.513 |
13 | West Bengal | 0.492 |
14 | Uttarakhand | 0.490 |
15 | Andhra Pradesh | 0.473 |
17 | Rajasthan | 0.434 |
18 | Uttar Pradesh | 0.380 |
19 | Jharkhand | 0.376 |
20 | Madhya Pradesh | 0.375 |
21 | Bihar | 0.367 |
22 | Odisha | 0.362 |
23 | Chhattisgarh | 0.358 |
Subnational HDI | Health index | Educational index | Income index | Life expectancy | Life expectancy females | Life expectancy males | Expected years schooling | Expected years schooling girls | Expected years schooling boys | Mean years schooling | Mean years schooling females | Mean years schooling males | Log Gross National Income per capita | Log Gross National Income per capita females | Log Gross National Income per capita males | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 0.633 | 0.727 | 0.552 | 0.633 | 67.24 | 68.89 | 65.76 | 11.88 | 11.94 | 11.81 | 6.655 | 6.252 | 7.229 | 8.793 | 7.731 | 9.272 |
Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 0.706 | 0.820 | 0.607 | 0.706 | 73.31 | 76.22 | 71.50 | 12.38 | 12.78 | 11.98 | 7.900 | 8.424 | 7.712 | 9.278 | 8.157 | 9.783 |
Andhra Pradesh | 0.630 | 0.734 | 0.517 | 0.660 | 67.69 | 69.44 | 66.19 | 11.95 | 12.04 | 11.87 | 5.546 | 5.135 | 6.120 | 8.973 | 7.888 | 9.461 |
Arunachal Pradesh | 0.665 | 0.767 | 0.575 | 0.665 | 69.87 | 72.08 | 68.27 | 13.20 | 13.32 | 13.11 | 6.257 | 6.118 | 6.556 | 9.010 | 7.921 | 9.500 |
Assam | 0.597 | 0.714 | 0.530 | 0.564 | 66.38 | 67.83 | 64.92 | 11.35 | 11.70 | 11.04 | 6.446 | 6.616 | 6.499 | 8.336 | 7.329 | 8.790 |
Bihar | 0.571 | 0.712 | 0.480 | 0.544 | 66.30 | 67.73 | 64.84 | 11.48 | 11.36 | 11.73 | 4.845 | 3.775 | 6.026 | 8.204 | 7.212 | 8.650 |
Chandigarh | 0.744 | 0.780 | 0.704 | 0.751 | 70.71 | 73.11 | 69.07 | 12.95 | 13.19 | 12.77 | 10.32 | 11.16 | 9.957 | 9.575 | 8.418 | 10.10 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.605 | 0.689 | 0.528 | 0.609 | 64.76 | 65.83 | 63.33 | 11.85 | 12.30 | 11.42 | 5.975 | 5.293 | 6.727 | 8.635 | 7.592 | 9.105 |
Dadra and Nagar Haveli | 0.620 | 0.766 | 0.507 | 0.613 | 69.76 | 71.95 | 68.17 | 10.39 | 10.94 | 9.974 | 6.550 | 5.620 | 7.229 | 8.665 | 7.618 | 9.137 |
Daman and Diu | 0.661 | 0.772 | 0.554 | 0.675 | 70.21 | 72.49 | 68.59 | 10.60 | 11.05 | 10.21 | 7.785 | 7.538 | 8.100 | 9.070 | 7.974 | 9.564 |
Goa | 0.751 | 0.809 | 0.696 | 0.752 | 72.59 | 75.36 | 70.83 | 13.48 | 13.67 | 13.29 | 9.648 | 10.43 | 9.398 | 9.585 | 8.427 | 10.11 |
Gujarat | 0.638 | 0.745 | 0.519 | 0.669 | 68.44 | 70.35 | 66.91 | 10.62 | 10.37 | 10.78 | 6.728 | 6.239 | 7.324 | 9.037 | 7.945 | 9.529 |
Haryana | 0.691 | 0.756 | 0.613 | 0.713 | 69.12 | 71.18 | 67.57 | 12.90 | 13.12 | 12.65 | 7.639 | 7.126 | 8.261 | 9.324 | 8.198 | 9.832 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.703 | 0.757 | 0.649 | 0.709 | 69.19 | 71.26 | 67.63 | 13.28 | 13.84 | 12.71 | 8.403 | 8.473 | 8.716 | 9.299 | 8.175 | 9.804 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.699 | 0.762 | 0.644 | 0.696 | 69.56 | 71.71 | 67.98 | 14.24 | 14.43 | 14.04 | 7.450 | 6.907 | 8.034 | 9.214 | 8.100 | 9.715 |
Jharkhand | 0.589 | 0.715 | 0.512 | 0.557 | 66.49 | 67.97 | 65.03 | 11.77 | 11.91 | 11.69 | 5.556 | 4.613 | 6.585 | 8.295 | 7.293 | 8.747 |
Karnataka | 0.667 | 0.777 | 0.567 | 0.673 | 70.50 | 72.84 | 68.87 | 12.16 | 12.34 | 11.97 | 6.896 | 6.676 | 7.333 | 9.057 | 7.963 | 9.550 |
Kerala | 0.752 | 0.834 | 0.713 | 0.716 | 74.23 | 77.32 | 72.35 | 14.20 | 14.77 | 13.65 | 9.543 | 10.88 | 8.820 | 9.344 | 8.215 | 9.852 |
Lakshadweep | 0.715 | 0.785 | 0.649 | 0.718 | 71.01 | 73.46 | 69.35 | 12.83 | 13.35 | 12.39 | 8.779 | 9.408 | 8.726 | 9.356 | 8.225 | 9.865 |
Madhya Pradesh | 0.596 | 0.693 | 0.509 | 0.600 | 65.05 | 66.19 | 63.62 | 11.31 | 11.24 | 11.35 | 5.839 | 5.062 | 6.603 | 8.577 | 7.541 | 9.044 |
Maharashtra | 0.688 | 0.779 | 0.620 | 0.676 | 70.60 | 72.97 | 68.97 | 12.75 | 12.71 | 12.73 | 7.963 | 7.793 | 8.356 | 9.077 | 7.980 | 9.571 |
Manipur | 0.678 | 0.783 | 0.656 | 0.606 | 70.87 | 73.29 | 69.21 | 13.15 | 13.19 | 13.13 | 8.727 | 8.898 | 8.953 | 8.619 | 7.578 | 9.088 |
Meghalaya | 0.643 | 0.753 | 0.572 | 0.616 | 68.93 | 70.94 | 67.38 | 12.67 | 13.38 | 11.98 | 6.613 | 7.429 | 6.196 | 8.684 | 7.635 | 9.157 |
Mizoram | 0.688 | 0.725 | 0.636 | 0.705 | 67.15 | 68.77 | 65.66 | 12.64 | 12.71 | 12.51 | 8.549 | 9.347 | 8.205 | 9.271 | 8.150 | 9.775 |
Nagaland | 0.670 | 0.767 | 0.614 | 0.639 | 69.84 | 72.05 | 68.25 | 12.70 | 13.14 | 12.27 | 7.838 | 8.352 | 7.665 | 8.835 | 7.767 | 9.315 |
New Delhi | 0.730 | 0.775 | 0.684 | 0.733 | 70.35 | 72.66 | 68.73 | 13.30 | 13.84 | 12.80 | 9.428 | 9.711 | 9.436 | 9.460 | 8.317 | 9.975 |
Orissa | 0.597 | 0.717 | 0.505 | 0.587 | 66.62 | 68.13 | 65.16 | 11.07 | 11.09 | 11.09 | 5.912 | 5.535 | 6.461 | 8.492 | 7.466 | 8.954 |
Puducherry | 0.726 | 0.794 | 0.664 | 0.724 | 71.60 | 74.17 | 69.90 | 12.99 | 13.69 | 12.33 | 9.104 | 9.420 | 9.313 | 9.399 | 8.263 | 9.910 |
Punjab | 0.694 | 0.765 | 0.598 | 0.729 | 69.73 | 71.92 | 68.14 | 12.34 | 12.94 | 11.79 | 7.670 | 8.157 | 7.522 | 9.432 | 8.292 | 9.945 |
Rajasthan | 0.638 | 0.725 | 0.543 | 0.660 | 67.13 | 68.75 | 65.65 | 12.62 | 12.49 | 12.78 | 5.766 | 4.467 | 7.011 | 8.973 | 7.889 | 9.461 |
Sikkim | 0.702 | 0.785 | 0.644 | 0.683 | 71.04 | 73.50 | 69.38 | 13.89 | 14.37 | 13.39 | 7.754 | 8.352 | 7.504 | 9.128 | 8.025 | 9.625 |
Tamil Nadu | 0.686 | 0.791 | 0.608 | 0.671 | 71.40 | 73.93 | 69.71 | 12.68 | 13.14 | 12.23 | 7.691 | 7.915 | 7.854 | 9.047 | 7.954 | 9.539 |
Telangana | 0.647 | 0.748 | 0.542 | 0.667 | 68.59 | 70.53 | 67.06 | 12.47 | 12.65 | 12.30 | 5.870 | 5.208 | 6.698 | 9.022 | 7.932 | 9.513 |
Tripura | 0.629 | 0.773 | 0.549 | 0.586 | 70.25 | 72.54 | 68.63 | 11.84 | 11.69 | 12.08 | 6.603 | 6.701 | 6.746 | 8.486 | 7.461 | 8.948 |
Uttar Pradesh | 0.592 | 0.667 | 0.524 | 0.591 | 63.39 | 64.12 | 61.96 | 11.22 | 11.11 | 11.34 | 6.383 | 5.535 | 7.314 | 8.519 | 7.490 | 8.983 |
Uttarakhand | 0.672 | 0.733 | 0.609 | 0.678 | 67.66 | 69.40 | 66.16 | 12.50 | 12.85 | 12.16 | 7.869 | 7.478 | 8.498 | 9.093 | 7.994 | 9.588 |
West Bengal | 0.624 | 0.761 | 0.534 | 0.598 | 69.48 | 71.61 | 67.90 | 11.77 | 12.27 | 11.30 | 6.226 | 6.179 | 6.480 | 8.567 | 7.532 | 9.033 |
A developed country, or advanced country, is a sovereign state that has a high quality of life, developed economy, and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are the gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living. Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Different definitions of developed countries are provided by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; moreover, HDI ranking is used to reflect the composite index of life expectancy, education, and income per capita. Another commonly used measure of a developed country is the threshold of GDP (PPP) per capita of at least US$22,000. In 2023, 40 countries fit all four criteria, while an additional 15 countries fit three out of four.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistical composite index of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which is used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores a higher level of HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the gross national income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher. It was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul-Haq and was further used to measure a country's development by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)'s Human Development Report Office.
The Human Poverty Index (HPI) was an indication of the poverty of community in a country, developed by the United Nations to complement the Human Development Index (HDI) and was first reported as part of the Human Development Report in 1997. It is developed by United Nations Development Program which also publishes indexes like HDI It was considered to better reflect the extent of deprivation in deprived countries compared to the HDI. In 2010, it was supplanted by the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index.
The Human Development Report (HDR) is an annual Human Development Index report published by the Human Development Report Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
The Gender Development Index (GDI) is an index designed to measure gender equality.
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is an index designed to measure gender equality. GEM is the United Nations Development Programme's attempt to measure the extent of gender inequality across the globe's countries, based on estimates of women's relative economic income, participation in high-paying positions with economic power, and access to professional and parliamentary positions. It was introduced at the same time as the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) but measures topics like empowerment that are not covered by that index. Since it was first adopted, the GEM has been employed in several academic studies related to empowerment as a reliable metric for comparing gender empowerment across different countries. It has also faced some harsh criticisms, and many alterations and alternatives have been proposed.
An Education index is a component of the Human Development Index published every year by the United Nations Development Programme. Alongside the Economical indicators and Life Expectancy Index, it helps measure the educational attainment. GNI (PPP) per capita and life expectancy are also used with the education index to get the HDI of each country.
Multidimensional Poverty Indices use a range of indicators to calculate a summary poverty figure for a given population, in which a larger figure indicates a higher level of poverty. This figure considers both the proportion of the population that is deemed poor, and the 'breadth' of poverty experienced by these 'poor' households, following the Alkire & Foster 'counting method'. The method was developed following increased criticism of monetary and consumption based poverty measures, seeking to capture the deprivations in non-monetary factors that contribute towards well-being. While there is a standard set of indicators, dimensions, cutoffs and thresholds used for a 'Global MPI', the method is flexible and there are many examples of poverty studies that modify it to best suit their environment. The methodology has been mainly, but not exclusively, applied to developing countries.
The Gender Inequality Index (GII) is an index for the measurement of gender disparity that was introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report 20th anniversary edition by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). According to the UNDP, this index is a composite measure to quantify the loss of achievement within a country due to gender inequality. It uses three dimensions to measure opportunity cost: reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. The new index was introduced as an experimental measure to remedy the shortcomings of the previous indicators, the Gender Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), both of which were introduced in the 1995 Human Development Report.