The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is an international alliance that consists of 10 member states and 2 observers from Eurasia. It was established on 26 April 1996 as the Shanghai Five. In addition to the 10 member states and 2 observer, the SCO currently has 14 dialogue partners and 4 guest attendance entries.
| Flag | Country | Capital | Largest city | Area (km2) | Population (2024) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Accession |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | China [a] People's Republic of China | Beijing | Shanghai (metropolitan area) Chongqing (city proper) | 9,640,011 [b] | 1,415,043,270 | 139.6 | 26,310 | 0.788 | Renminbi (Chinese yuan, ¥) (CNY) | Standard Chinese [3] written in simplified characters [3] see also languages of China | Head of State: Xi Jinping | 1996-04-26 |
 | Kazakhstan Republic of Kazakhstan | Astana | Almaty | 2,724,900 | 20,260,006 | 5.94 | 41,366 | 0.802 | Kazakhstani tenge (₸) (KZT) | Kazakh (National) Russian | Head of State: Kassym Jomart Tokayev | 1996-04-26 |
 | Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyz Republic | Bishkek | 199,900 | 6,172,101 | 27.4 | 7,773 | 0.701 | Kyrgyzstani som (som) (KGS) | Kyrgyz (National) Russian | Head of State: | 1996-04-26 | |
 | Russia Russian Federation | Moscow | 17,075,400 | 140,820,810 | 8.3 | 47,299 | 0.821 | Russian rouble (₽) (RUB) | Russian also see Languages of Russia | Head of State: Vladimir Putin | 1996-04-26 | |
 | Tajikistan Republic of Tajikistan | Dushanbe | 143,100 | 10,394,063 | 48.6 | 5,533 | 0.679 | Tajikistani somoni (SM) (TJS) | Tajik Persian | Head of State: Emomali Rahmon | 1996-04-26 | |
 | Uzbekistan Republic of Uzbekistan | Tashkent | 447,400 | 36,520,593 | 61.4 | 11,596 | 0.727 | Uzbekistani soum (soum) (UZS) | Uzbek | Head of State: Shavkat Mirziyoyev | 2001-06-15 | |
 | India Republic of India | New Delhi | Mumbai | 3,287,240 | 1,409,128,296 | 364.4 | 11,112 | 0.644 | Indian rupee (₹) (INR) | Hindi (Devanagari script)&, English . Also see Languages of India | Head of State: Droupadi Murmu | 2017-06-09 [4] |
 | Pakistan Islamic Republic of Pakistan | Islamabad | Karachi | 881,913 | 252,363,571 | 273.8 | $6,715 | 0.540 | Pakistani rupee (Rs) (PKR) | Urdu (National) English | Head of State: Asif Ali Zardari | 2017-06-09 [4] |
 | Iran Islamic Republic of Iran | Tehran | 1,648,195 | 88,386,937 | 48.0 | 19,607 | 0.780 | Iranian rial (Rl) (IRR) | Persian | Head of State: Ali Khamenei | 2023-07-04 [5] | |
 | Belarus Republic of Belarus | Minsk | 207,595 | 9,501,451 | 45.8 | 32,098 | 0.801 | Belarusian rubel (Rbl) (BYR) | Belarusian Russian | Head of State and Government: Alexander Lukashenko | 2024-07-04 | |
The following list is sourced from the 2025 edition of "Global Firepower Index" published annually by the Global Firepower.
'War does not determine who is right - only who is left.' - Bertrand Russell
| Flag | Country | Active Personnel | Reserve Personnel | Paramilitary | Total Personnel | Global Fire Power Index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Belarus | 63,000 | 145,000 | 55,000 | 263,000 | 70 |
| | China | 2,035,000 | 510,000 | 625,000 | 3,170,000 | 3 |
| | India | 1,455,550 | 1,155,000 | 2,527,000 | 5,137,550 | 4 |
| | Iran | 610,000 | 350,000 | 220,000 | 1,180,000 | 16 |
| | Kazakhstan | 10,000 | 135,000 | 55,000 | 300,000 | 57 |
| | Kyrgyzstan | 23,000 | 300,000 | 55,000 | 378,00 | 105 |
| | Pakistan | 654,000 | 550,000 | 500,000 | 1,704,000 | 12 |
| | Russian Federation | 1,320,000 | 2,000,000 | 250,000 | 3,570,000 | 2 |
| | Tajikistan | 9,500 | 600,000 | 20,000 | 629,500 | 108 |
| | Uzbekistan | 48,000 | 0 | 20,000 | 68,000 | 58 |
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2024) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status gained |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Mongolia | Ulaanbaatar | 1,564,115 | 3,475,540 | 2 | $16,504 | Mongolian tögrög (₮) (MNT) | Mongolian | Head of State: Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh Head of Government: Luvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene | 2004-06-17 |
 | Afghanistan | Kabul | 652,857 | 41,128,771 | 48.08 | $2,459 | Afghan Afghani | Kabul | De facto Supreme Leader: Hibatullah Akhundzada De facto head of government: Hasan Akhund | 2012 |
The following countries have applied for a position in the organization:
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2016) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status applied for | Year applied |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Bangladesh People's Republic of Bangladesh | Dhaka | 148,460 | 169,828,911 | 1,305 | 2,470 | 0.661 | Bangladeshi taka (BDT) | Bengali | Head of State: Mohammed Shahabuddin | Observer | 2012 [8] |
 | Syria Syrian Arab Republic | Damascus | 185,180 | 22,933,531 | 118.3 | 2,900 | 0.577 | Syrian pound (SYP) | Arabic | Head of State: Ahmed al-Sharaa | Dialogue Partner | 2015 [c] [9] |
 | Israel State of Israel | Jerusalem [d] | 20,770 | 9,766,400 | 442 | 54,997 | 0.919 | Israeli new shekel (ILS) | Hebrew | Head of State: Isaac Herzog | Dialogue Partner | 2016 [9] |
 | Iraq Republic of Iraq | Baghdad | 438,317 | 43,500,000 | 82.7 | 12,141 | 0.686 | Iraqi dinar (IQD) | Arabic | Head of State: Abdul Latif Rashid Head of Government: Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani | Dialogue Partner | 2019 [10] |
 | Algeria People's Democratic Republic of Algeria | Algiers | 2,381,741 | 44,700,000 | 17.7 | 13,324 | 0.745 | Algerian dinar (DZD) | Arabic | Head of State: Abdelmadjid Tebboune Head of Government: Nadir Larbaoui | Observer | 2023 [11] [12] |
 | Laos Lao People’s Democratic Republic | Vientiane | 236,800 | 7,749,595 | 26.7 | 9,787 | 0.620 | Lao kip (LAK) | Lao | Head of State: Thongloun Sisoulith | Dialogue Partner | 2024 [13] |
In 2012, Ukraine expressed interest in obtaining observer status. However, since the deposition of President Viktor Yanukovych and increased tensions with Russia, no application has been submitted and there are no current plans to incorporate Ukraine into the organization. [14] [15]
In 2011, Vietnam expressed interest in obtaining observer or dialogue partner status. However, it is unknown whether or not, Vietnam has submitted an application. [16]
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2024) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status gained |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Afghanistan [17] | Kabul | 652,867 | 41,128,771 | 48.08 | $2,459 | 0.462 | Afghan afghani (Af) (AFN) | Pashto Dari | De facto Supreme Leader: Hibatullah Akhundzada De facto head of government: Hasan Akhund | 2012-06-07 (Observer) |
The United States applied for observer status in the SCO, but was rejected in 2005. [18]
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, lies between the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. It has an area of 35,808 square kilometres, with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly urbanized population is concentrated. The combined territories under ROC control consist of 168 islands in total covering 36,193 square kilometres. The largest metropolitan area is formed by Taipei, New Taipei City, and Keelung. With around 23.9 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries.
The Republic of China Armed Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of China (ROC), which once ruled Mainland China and is now currently restricted to its territorial jurisdictions of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu Islands. They consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Military Police Force. The military is under the civilian control of the Ministry of National Defense, a cabinet-level agency overseen by the Legislative Yuan.
Foreign relations of the Republic of China (ROC), more commonly known as Taiwan, are accomplished by efforts of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, a cabinet-level ministry of the Government of the Republic of China. As of January 2024, the ROC has formal diplomatic relations with 11 of the 193 United Nations member states and with the Holy See, which governs the Vatican City State. In addition to these relations, the ROC also maintains unofficial relations with 59 UN member states, one self-declared state (Somaliland), three territories (Guam, Hong Kong, and Macau), and the European Union via its representative offices and consulates. In 2021, the Government of the Republic of China had the 33rd largest diplomatic network in the world with 110 offices.
The Taiwan independence movement is a political movement which advocates the formal declaration of an independent and sovereign Taiwanese state, as opposed to Chinese unification or the status quo in Cross-Strait relations.
Chinese unification, also known as Cross-Strait unification or Chinese reunification, is the potential unification of territories currently controlled, or claimed, by the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China ("Taiwan") under one political entity, possibly the formation of a political union between the two republics. Together with full Taiwan independence, unification is one of the main proposals to address questions on the political status of Taiwan, which is a central focus of Cross-Strait relations.
The political status of Taiwan or the Taiwan issue is an ongoing geopolitical dispute about Taiwan, currently controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), that arose in the mid-twentieth century. Originally based in mainland China before and during World War II, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after it was defeated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the Chinese Civil War and the subsequent establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Since then, the effective jurisdiction of the ROC has been limited to Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and smaller islands.
One China is a phrase describing the relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) based on Mainland China, and the Republic of China (ROC) based on the Taiwan Area. "One China" asserts that there is only one de jure Chinese nation despite the de facto division between the two rival governments in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. The term may refer, in alphabetical order, to one of the following:
The Taiwan Strait is a 180-kilometer -wide strait separating the island of Taiwan and the Asian continent. The strait is part of the South China Sea and connects to the East China Sea to the north. The narrowest part is 130 km wide.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organization established by China and Russia in 2001. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 24% of the area of world and 42% of the world population. As of 2024, its combined nominal GDP accounts for around 23%, while its GDP based on PPP comprises approximately 36% of the world's total.
The Penghu or Pescadores Islands are an archipelago of 90 islands and islets in the Taiwan Strait, about 50 km (31 mi) west of the main island of Taiwan across the Penghu Channel, covering an area of 141 square kilometers (54 sq mi). The archipelago collectively forms Penghu County of Taiwan and is the smallest county of Taiwan. The largest city is Magong, on the largest island, which is also named Magong.
As a result of the surrender and occupation of Japan at the end of World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the governance of the Republic of China (ROC), ruled by the Kuomintang (KMT), on 25 October 1945. Following the February 28 massacre in 1947, martial law was declared in 1949 by the Governor of Taiwan, Chen Cheng, and the ROC Ministry of National Defense. Following the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the ROC government retreated from the mainland as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The KMT retreated to Taiwan and declared Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC. For many years, the ROC and PRC each continued to claim in the diplomatic arena to be the sole legitimate government of "China". In 1971, the United Nations expelled the ROC and replaced it with the PRC.
The Mainland Affairs Council (MAC) is a cabinet-level administrative agency under the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China (Taiwan). The MAC is responsible for the planning, development, and implementation of the cross-strait relations policy which targets mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau.
Cross-strait relations are the political and economic relations between China and Taiwan across the Taiwan Strait. Due to the existing controversy over the status of Taiwan and the Chinese legitimacy question, they are also not defined as diplomatic relations by either side.
"Taiwan, China", "Taiwan, Province of China", and "Taipei, China" are controversial political terms that claim Taiwan and its associated territories as a province or territory of the People's Republic of China.
An exclusive mandate is a government's assertion of its legitimate authority over a certain territory, part of which another government controls with stable, de facto sovereignty. It is also known as a claim to sole representation or an exclusive authority claim. The concept was particularly important during the Cold War period when a number of states were divided on ideological grounds.
Taiwanese nationality law details the conditions in which a person is a national of the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan. The Nationality Act is based on the principle of jus sanguinis, children born to at least one Taiwanese parent are automatically nationals at birth. Foreign nationals with residency in Taiwan may naturalize after continuously living in the country for at least five (5) years. Certain foreign immediate family members of Taiwanese nationals may naturalize after continuously living in the country for at least three (3) years.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Taiwan:
The administrative divisions of China between 1912 and 1949 were established under the regime of the Republic of China government.
Following their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, on December 7, 1949, the remnants of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC), alongside many refugees, retreated to the island of Taiwan (Formosa). The exodus is sometimes called the Great Retreat in Taiwan. The Nationalist Kuomintang party (KMT), its officers, and approximately 2 million ROC troops took part in the retreat, in addition to many civilians and refugees, fleeing the advance of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP, who now effectively controlled most of mainland China, spent the subsequent years purging any remnant Nationalist agents in western and southern China, solidifying the rule of the newly established People's Republic of China (PRC).
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