The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is an international alliance that consists of 9 member states and 4 observers from Eurasia. It was established on 26 April 1996 as the Shanghai Five. In addition to the 10 member states and 1 observer, the SCO currently has 14 dialogue partners and 4 guest attendance entries.
The following list is sourced from the 2018 edition of "The Military Balance" published annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies.
| Flag | Country | Active military | Reserve military | Paramilitary | Total | Per 1000 capita (total) | Per 1000 capita (active) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | China [6] | 2,035,000 | 510,000 | 1,500,000 | 4,045,000 | 2.9 | 1.5 |
 | India [7] | 1,440,000 | 2,096,000 | 1,585,950 | 5,121,950 | 4 | 1.1 |
 | Iran [8] | 610,000 | 350,000 | 40,000 | 1,000,000 | 11.4 | 7 |
 | Kazakhstan [9] | 39,000 | 0 | 31,500 | 70,500 | 3.8 | 2.1 |
 | Kyrgyzstan [10] | 10,900 | 0 | 9,500 | 20,400 | 3.5 | 1.9 |
 | Pakistan [11] | 653,000 | 0 | 0 | 653,000 | 3.1 | 3.1 |
 | Russian Federation [12] [Note 1] | 1,013,628 | 2,572,500 | 2,310,859 | 5,896,987 | 41.5 | 7.1 |
 | Tajikistan [13] | 8,800 | 0 | 7,500 | 16,300 | 1.9 | 1 |
 | Uzbekistan [14] | 48,000 | 0 | 20,000 | 68,000 | 2.3 | 1.6 |
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2016) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status gained |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Mongolia | Ulaanbaatar | 1,564,115 | 3,067,550 | 1.75 | 11,919 | 0.727 | Mongolian tögrög (₮) (MNT) | Mongolian | Head of State: Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh Head of Government: Luvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene | 2004-06-17 |
The following countries have applied for a position in the organization:
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2016) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status applied for | Year applied |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Bangladesh People's Republic of Bangladesh | Dhaka | 148,460 | 169,828,911 | 1,305 | 2,470 | 0.661 | Bangladeshi taka (BDT) | Bengali | Head of State: Mohammed Shahabuddin | Observer | 2012 [17] |
 | Syria Syrian Arab Republic | Damascus | 185,180 | 22,933,531 | 118.3 | 2,900 | 0.577 | Syrian pound (SYP) | Arabic | Head of State and Government: Bashar al-Assad | Dialogue Partner | 2015 [lower-alpha 3] [18] |
 | Israel State of Israel | Jerusalem [lower-alpha 4] | 20,770 | 9,766,400 | 442 | 54,997 | 0.919 | Israeli new shekel (ILS) | Hebrew | Head of State: Isaac Herzog | Dialogue Partner | 2016 [18] |
 | Iraq Republic of Iraq | Baghdad | 438,317 | 43,500,000 | 82.7 | 12,141 | 0.686 | Iraqi dinar (IQD) | Arabic | Head of State: Abdul Latif Rashid Head of Government: Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani | Dialogue Partner | 2019 [19] |
 | Algeria People's Democratic Republic of Algeria | Algiers | 2,381,741 | 44,700,000 | 17.7 | 13,324 | 0.745 | Algerian dinar (DZD) | Arabic | Head of State: Abdelmadjid Tebboune Head of Government: Aymen Benabderrahmane | Observer | 2023 [20] [21] |
 | Laos Lao People’s Democratic Republic | Vientiane | 236,800 | 7,749,595 | 26.7 | 9,787 | 0.620 | Lao kip (LAK) | Lao | Head of State: Thongloun Sisoulith | Dialogue Partner | 2024 [22] |
In 2012, Ukraine expressed interest in obtaining observer status. However, since the deposition of President Viktor Yanukovych and increased tensions with Russia, no application has been submitted and there are no current plans to incorporate Ukraine into the organization. [23] [24]
In 2011, Vietnam expressed interest in obtaining observer or dialogue partner status. However, it is unknown whether or not, Vietnam has submitted an application. [25]
| Flag | Country | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2016) | Density (/km2) | GDP per cap. (PPP) [1] | HDI [2] | Currency | Official languages | Leaders | Status gained |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Afghanistan [26] | Kabul | 652,230 | 27,101,365 | 43.5 | 1,944 | 0.465 | Afghan afghani (Af) (AFN) | Pashto Dari | De facto head of state: Hibatullah Akhundzada De facto head of government: Abdul Kabir | 2012-06-07 (Observer) |
The United States applied for observer status in the SCO, but was rejected in 2005. [27]
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, lies between the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. It has an area of 35,808 square kilometres, with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly urbanized population is concentrated. The combined territories under ROC control consist of 168 islands in total covering 36,193 square kilometres. The largest metropolitan area is formed by Taipei, New Taipei City, and Keelung. With around 23.9 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries.
The Republic of China Armed Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of China (ROC) that once ruled Mainland China and now currently restricted to its territorial jurisdictions of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands. They consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Military Police Force. The military is under the civilian control of the Ministry of National Defense, a cabinet-level agency overseen by the Legislative Yuan.
Foreign relations of the Republic of China (ROC), more commonly known as Taiwan, are accomplished by efforts of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, a cabinet-level ministry of the Government of the Republic of China. As of January 2024, the ROC has formal diplomatic relations with 11 of the 193 United Nations member states and with the Holy See, the central governing body of the Catholic Church. In addition to these relations, the ROC also maintains unofficial diplomatic relations with 59 UN member states, one self-declared state (Somaliland), three territories (Guam, Hong Kong, and Macau), and the European Union via its representative offices and consulates. In 2021, the Government of the Republic of China had the 33rd largest diplomatic network in the world with 110 offices.
The Taiwan independence movement is a political movement which advocates the formal declaration of an independent and sovereign Taiwanese state, as opposed to Chinese unification or the status quo in Cross-Strait relations.
"Mainland China", also referred to as "the Chinese mainland", is a geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addition to the geographical mainland, the geopolitical sense of the term includes islands such as Hainan, Chongming, and Zhoushan. By convention, territories outside of mainland China include:
Chinese unification, also known as Cross-Strait unification or Chinese reunification, is the potential unification of territories currently controlled, or claimed, by the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China ("Taiwan") under one political entity, possibly the formation of a political union between the two republics. Together with full Taiwan independence, unification is one of the main proposals to address questions on the political status of Taiwan, which is a central focus of Cross-Strait relations.
The political status of Taiwan or the Taiwan issue is an ongoing geopolitical dispute about Taiwan, currently controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), that arose in the mid-twentieth century. Originally based in mainland China before and during World War II, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) won the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China (PRC). Since then, the effective jurisdiction of the ROC has been limited to Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and smaller islands.
One China is a phrase describing the relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) based on Mainland China, and the Republic of China (ROC) based on Taiwan Area. "One China" asserts that there is only one de jure Chinese nation despite the de facto division between the two rival governments in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. The term may refer, in alphabetical order, to one of the following:
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organization established by China and Russia in 2001. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 80% of the area of Eurasia and 40% of the world population. As of 2023, its combined GDP based on PPP was around 32% of the world's total.
As a result of the surrender and occupation of Japan at the end of World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the governance of the Republic of China (ROC), ruled by the Kuomintang (KMT), on 25 October 1945. Following the February 28 massacre in 1947, martial law was declared in 1949 by the Governor of Taiwan, Chen Cheng, and the ROC Ministry of National Defense. Following the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the ROC government retreated from the mainland as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The KMT retreated to Taiwan and declared Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC. For many years, the ROC and PRC each continued to claim in the diplomatic arena to be the sole legitimate government of "China". In 1971, the United Nations expelled the ROC and replaced it with the PRC.
The Republic of China Marine Corps is the amphibious arm of the Republic of China Navy (ROCN) responsible for amphibious warfare, counter-landing and reinforcement of the areas under the jurisdiction of the Republic of China (ROC), including the island of Taiwan, Kinmen, and the Matsu Islands, and defense of ROCN facilities, also functioning as a rapid reaction force and a strategic reserve capable of amphibious assaults.
Cross-strait relations are the political and economic relations between mainland China and Taiwan across the Taiwan Strait.
The Eastern Theater Command Navy (ETCN), or the East Sea Fleet (ESF) before February 2018, is a formation of China's People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) and the naval component of the Eastern Theater Command.
Taiwan Province, PRC refers to a notional administrative division claimed by the People's Republic of China. The PRC constitution asserts Taiwan as part of its territories although the PRC has never controlled Taiwan since the PRC's establishment in 1949. The territory of the claimed province, including the entire island of Taiwan, is in actuality administered by the Republic of China (ROC) but is not coextensive with the smaller Taiwan Province of the ROC.
The concept of Two Chinas refers to the political divide between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). The PRC was established in 1949 by the Chinese Communist Party, while the ROC was founded in 1912 and retreated to Taiwan after losing the Chinese Civil War.
Project Guoguang was an attempt by the Republic of China (ROC), based in Taiwan, to reconquer mainland China from the People's Republic of China (PRC) by large scale invasion. It was the most elaborate of the ROCs plans or studies to invade the mainland after 1949. Guoguang was initiated in 1961 in response to events involving the PRC, particularly the Great Leap Forward, the Sino-Soviet split, and the development of nuclear weapons. Guoguang was never executed; it required more troops and material than the ROC could muster, and it lacked support from the United States. The use of a large scale invasion as the initial stage of reunification was effectively abandoned after 1966, although the Guoguang planning organization was not abolished until 1972. The ROC did not abandon the policy of using force for reunification until 1990.
The Republic of China (ROC) began as a country in mainland China. It was established after the 1911 Revolution, which overthrew the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and ended China's imperial history. It was ruled by the Kuomintang (KMT) as a one-party state while headquartered in Nanjing from 1927 until its relocation to Taiwan on 7 December 1949, following its defeat by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the Chinese Civil War. The CCP proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949, while the ROC retains control over the "Taiwan Area" and the political status of Taiwan remains in dispute.
Following their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, on December 7, 1949, the remnants of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC), alongside many refugees, retreated to the island of Taiwan (Formosa). The exodus is sometimes called the Great Retreat in Taiwan. The Nationalist Kuomintang party (KMT), its officers, and approximately 2 million ROC troops took part in the retreat, in addition to many civilians and refugees, fleeing the advance of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP, who now effectively controlled most of mainland China, spent the subsequent years purging any remnant Nationalist agents in western and southern China, solidifying the rule of the newly established People's Republic of China (PRC).
Chinese irredentism involves irredentist claims to the territories of former Chinese dynasties made by the Republic of China (ROC) and subsequently the People's Republic of China (PRC).
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