Mirza Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), commonly called Shah Jahan I (Persian pronunciation:[ʃɑːhd͡ʒa.ˈhɑːn]; lit.'King of the World'), also called Shah Jahan the Magnificent,[7][8] was Emperor of Hindustan from 1628 until his deposition in 1658. As the fifth Mughal emperor, his reign marked the zenith of Mughal architectural and cultural achievements.
The third son of Jahangir (r.1605–1627), Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against the SisodiaRajputs of Mewar and the rebel Lodi nobles of the Deccan. After Jahangir's death in October 1627, Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brother Shahryar Mirza and crowned himself emperor in the Agra Fort. In addition to Shahryar, Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne. He commissioned many monuments, including the Red Fort, Shah Jahan Mosque and the Taj Mahal, where his favorite consort Mumtaz Mahal is entombed. In foreign affairs, Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against the Deccan sultanates, the conflicts with the Portuguese, and the wars with the Safavids. He also suppressed several local rebellions and dealt with the devastating Deccan famine of 1630–32.
In September 1657, Shah Jahan was ailing and appointed his eldest son Dara Shikoh as his successor. This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons, from which Shah Jahan's third son Aurangzeb (r.1658–1707) emerged victorious and became the sixth emperor, executing all of his surviving brothers, including Crown Prince Dara Shikoh. After Shah Jahan recovered from his illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb imprisoned him in Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666.[9] He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal. His reign is known for doing away with the liberal policies initiated by his grandfather Akbar. During Shah Jahan's time, Islamic revivalist movements like the Naqshbandi began to shape Mughal policies.[10]
Early life
Birth and background
Jahangir weighing young Prince Khurram by Manohar Das c.1610-1615
He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore, present-day Pakistan, as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim (later known as 'Jahangir' upon his accession) by his wife, Jagat Gosain.[11][12] The name Khurram (Persian: خرم, lit.'joyous') was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Emperor Akbar, with whom the young prince shared a close relationship.[12] Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him "There is no comparison between him and your other sons. I consider him my true son."[13]
When Khurram was born, Akbar considering him to be auspicious insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim's and was thus entrusted to the care of Ruqaiya Sultan Begum. Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram[14] and is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately. Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]."[15]
However, after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605, he returned to the care of his mother, Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely. Although separated from her at birth, he had become devoted to her and had her addressed as Hazrat in court chronicles.[16][17] On the death of Jagat Gosain in Akbarabad on 8 April 1619, he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days. For these three weeks of the mourning period, he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals. His consort Mumtaz Mahal personally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period. She led the recitation of the Quran every morning and gave her husband many lessons on the substance of life and death and begged him not to grieve.[18]
Education
As a child, Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which included martial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such as poetry and music, most of which was inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Jahangir. According to his chronicler Qazvini, prince Khurram was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[19] Khurram was attracted to Hindi literature since his childhood, and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father's biography, Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri.[20] In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed, Khurram, who at this point of time was 13,[citation needed] remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father.[21] He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather's household, namely Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Mariam-uz-Zamani as Akbar's health deteriorated.[22]
Khusrau rebellion
In 1605, his father succeeded to the throne, after crushing a rebellion by Prince Khusrau – Khurram remained distant from court politics and intrigues in the immediate aftermath of that event.[citation needed] Khurram left Ruqaiya's care and returned to his mother's care.[23] As the third son, Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time, his father's and his half-brother's; thus, he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training. This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in the Mughal court, which would be useful later on in his life.[24]
Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau. He was later ordered to bring Mariam-uz-Zamani, his grandmother and Jahangir's harem to him.[25]
During Khusrau's second rebellion, Khurram's informants informed him about Fatehullah, Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau's instigation and lay await for the Emperor. Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him.[26]
Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold, silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta.[27]
Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half-brother, Khusrau Mirza, Khurram began to drift closer to his father, and over time, started to be considered the de facto heir-apparent by court chroniclers. This status was given official sanction when Jahangir granted the sarkar of Hissar-e-Feroza, which had traditionally been the fief of the heir-apparent, to Khurram in 1608.[28] After her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611, Nur Jahan gradually became an active participant in all decisions made by Jahangir and gained extreme powers in administration, so much so that it was obvious to everyone both inside and outside that most of his decisions were actually hers. Slowly, while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium, she was considered to be the actual power behind the throne. Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court, termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians. Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother, Nur Jahan who favoured her son-in-law Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne over him. In the last years of Jahangir's life, Nur Jahan was in full power, and the emperor had left all the burden of governance on her. She tried to weaken Khurram's position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son-in-law. Khurram after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir-apparent rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father. Several years before Jahangir's death in 1627, coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan's name along with Jahangir's name; In fact, there were two prerogatives of sovereignty for the legitimacy of a Muslim monarchy (reading the Khutbah and the other being the right to mint coins). After the death of Jahangir in 1627, a struggle developed between Khurram and his half-brother, Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne. Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature, authority, privileges, honors and economic grants and was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet and comfortable life till her death.
In 1607, Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum (1593–1631), who is also known as Mumtaz Mahal (Persian lit.' The Exalted One of the Palace'). They were about 14 and 15 when they were engaged, and five years later, got married. The young girl belonged to an illustrious Persian noble family that included Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan, who had been serving Mughal emperors since the reign of Akbar. The family's patriarch was Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who was also known by his title I'timād-ud-Daulah or "Pillar of the State". He had been Jahangir's finance minister and his son, Asaf Khan – Arjumand Banu's father – played an important role in the Mughal court, eventually serving as Chief Minister. Her aunt Mehr-un-Nissa later became the Empress Nur Jahan, chief consort of Emperor Jahangir.[29]
The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612 (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. This was an unusually long engagement for the time. However, Shah Jahan first married a Persian Princess (name not known) entitled Kandahari Begum, the daughter of a great-grandson of the great Shah Ismail I of Persia, with whom he had a daughter, his first child.[30]
In 1612, aged 20, Khurram married Mumtaz Mahal, on a date chosen by court astrologers. The marriage was a happy one and Khurram remained devoted to her. They had fourteen children, out of whom seven survived into adulthood.
Though there was genuine love between the two, Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband.[31] Later on, as empress, Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power, such as being consulted by her husband in state matters, attending the council (shura or diwan), and being responsible for the imperial seal, which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft. Shah Jahan also gave her the right to issue her own orders (hukums) and make appointments to him. [citation needed]
Mumtaz Mahal died at the young age of 38 (7 June 1631), upon giving birth to Princess Gauhar Ara Begum in the city of Burhanpur, Deccan of a postpartum haemorrhage, which caused considerable blood-loss after painful labor of thirty hours.[32] Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17, was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention, and Shah Jahan was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits.[33] Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad, originally constructed by Shah Jahan's uncle Prince Daniyal along the Tapti River. Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan's personality and inspired the construction of the marvelous Taj Mahal, where she was later reburied.[34]
Khurram had taken other wives, among whom were Kandahari Begum (m. 28 October 1610) and another Persian Princess Izz un-Nisa Begum (m. 2 September 1617), the daughters of Prince Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son of Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, respectively. But according to court chroniclers, these marriages were more out of political consideration, and they enjoyed only the status of being royal wives.[citation needed]
Khurram is also recorded to have married his maternal half-cousin, a RathoreRajput Princess Kunwari Leelavati Deiji, daughter of Kunwar Sakat/Sagat or Shakti Singh son of Mota Raja Udai Singh and half brother of Raja Sur Singh of Marwar. The marriage took place at Jodhpur when Khurram was in rebellion against his father, emperor Jahangir.[35]
Relationship with Jahanara
After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, his daughter Jahanara Begum had a significant influence in the Mughal administration.[36][37] As a result, several accusations of an incestual relationship between Shah Jahan and Jahanara were propagated.[38] Such accusations have been dismissed by modern historians as gossip, as no witness of an incident has been mentioned.[39]
Historian K. S. Lal also dismisses such claims as rumors propagated by courtiers and mullahs. He cites Aurangzeb's confining of Jahanara in the Agra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people magnifying a rumor. [40]
Several contemporary travelers have mentioned such accessions. Francois Bernier, a French physician, mentions rumors of an incestuous relationship being propagated in the Mughal Court.[41] However, Bernier did not mention witnessing such a relationship.[42]Niccolao Manucci, a Venetian traveler, dismisses such accusations by Bernier as gossip and "The talk of the Low People".[38][43]
Early military campaigns
Shirt of the Personal Armour of Shah Jahan c.1632-1633
Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent. The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during the Mughal campaign against the Rajput state of Mewar, which had been a hostile force to the Mughals since Akbar's reign.[44]
After a year of a harsh war of attrition, Rana Amar Singh I surrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became a vassal state of the Mughal Empire as a result of Mughal expedition of Mewar.[45] In 1615, Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh, Amar Singh's heir to Jahangir. Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir.[46] The same year, his mansab was increased from 12000/6000 to 15000/7000, to equal that his brother Parvez's and was further increased to 20000/10000 in 1616.[47][48]
The Submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar to Prince Khurram, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri.
In 1616, on Khurram's departure to Deccan, Jahangir awarded him the title Shah Sultan Khurram.[49]
In 1617, Khurram was directed to deal with the Lodis in the Deccan to secure the Empire's southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region. On his return 1617 after successes in these campaigns, Khurram performed koronush before Jahangir who called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him. Jahangir also granting him the title of Shah Jahan (Persian: "King of the World")[50] and raised his military rank to 30000/20000 and allowed him a special throne in his Durbar, an unprecedented honor for a prince.[51] Edward S. Holden writes, "He was flattered by some, envied by others, loved by none."[52]
In 1618, Shah Jahan was given the first copy of Tuzk-e-Jahangiri by his father who considered him "the first of all my sons in everything."[53]
Rebel prince
Shah Jahan on horseback (during his youth).
Inheritance in the Mughal Empire was not determined through primogeniture, but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Shah Jahan's formative years. In 1611 his father married Nur Jahan, the widowed daughter of a Persian noble. She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir's court and, together with her brother Asaf Khan, wielded considerable influence. Arjumand was Asaf Khan's daughter and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions in court.
Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram's youngest brother Shahzada Shahryar and her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division. Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother and her son-in-law. When the Persians besieged Kandahar, Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but he refused. As a result of Prince Khurram's refusal to obey Nur Jahan's orders, Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty-five-day siege.[54] Prince Khurram feared that in his absence Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar the heir in his place. This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians.
In 1622, Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan.[54] He was defeated at Bilochpur in March 1623. Later he took refuge in UdaipurMewar with Maharana Karan Singh II. He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted to Jagmandir Palace on his request. Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with the Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum, Udaipur (R V Somani 1976). It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in the Taj Mahal of Agra. In November 1623, he found safe asylum in Bengal Subah after he was driven from Agra and the Deccan. He advanced through Midnapur and Burdwan. At Akbarnagar, he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal, Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang, on 20 April 1624.[55] He entered Dhaka and "all the elephants, horses, and 4,000,000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him". After a short stay he then moved to Patna.[56] His rebellion did not succeed in the end and he was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated near Allahabad. Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath the surface.
Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram, acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister's plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne. He put Nur Jahan in close confinement. He obtained control of Prince Khurram's three sons who were under her charge. Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram's succession to the throne.[57] Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi (Urdu: شهاب الدین محمد خرم), or Shah Jahan.[58]
His regnal name is divided into various parts. Shihab ud-Din, meaning "Star of the Faith", Sahib al-Quiran ud-Thani, meaning "Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus". Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World", alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions. More epithets showed his secular and religious duties. He was also titled Hazrat Shahenshah ("His Imperial Majesty"), Hazrat-i-Khilafat-Panahi ("His Majesty the Refuge of the Caliphate"), Hazrat Zill-i-Ilahi ("His Majesty the Shadow of God").[59]
His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother Nur Jahan. Upon Shah Jahan's orders, several executions took place on 23 January 1628. Those put to death included his brother Shahryar; his nephews Dawar and Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously executed brother Prince Khusrau; and his cousins Tahmuras and Hoshang, sons of the late Prince Daniyal Mirza.[60][61] This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention.
Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911,400 infantry, musketeers, and artillery men, and 185,000 Sowars commanded by princes and nobles.
His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of the Timurid Renaissance, in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region of Balkh. In various forms, Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy.[62]
During his reign the Marwari horse was introduced, becoming Shah Jahan's favorite, and various Mughal cannons were mass-produced in the Jaigarh Fort. Under his rule, the empire became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens. But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability–the administration was centralized and court affairs systematized.
The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts. India at the time was a rich center of the arts, crafts and architecture, and some of the best of the architects, artisans, craftsmen, painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan's empire. According to economist Angus Maddison, Mughal-era India's share of global gross domestic product (GDP) grew from 22.7% in 1600 to 24.4% in 1700, surpassing China to become the world's largest.[63][64] E. Dewick and Murray Titus, quoting Badshahnama, write that 76 temples in Benares were demolished on Shah Jahan's orders.[65]
A famine broke out in 1630–32 in Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures.[66] Two million died of starvation, grocers sold dogs' flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour. It is reported that parents ate their own children. Some villages were completely destroyed, their streets filled with human corpses. In response to the devastation, Shah Jahan set up langar (free kitchens) for the victims of the famine.[67]
Successful military campaigns against Deccan Sultanates
In 1632, Shah Jahan captured the fortress at Daulatabad, Maharashtra and imprisoned Husein Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar. Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan, consisting of Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. During his viceroyalty, Aurangzeb conquered Baglana where he defeated defeated Baharji, the Raja,[68][69][70][71] The small Maratha kingdom of Baglana straddled the main route from Surat and the western ports to Burhanpur in the Deccan, and had been subservient to one Muslim ruler or other for centuries. In 1637, however, Shah Jahan decided on complete annexation.[68][72] Baharji, who had commanded the Baglana forces, died soon after the conquest. His son converted to Islam and received the title of Daulatmand Khan.[68][73]
Aurangzeb then defeated Golconda in 1656, and then Bijapur in 1657.[74]
Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city of Kandahar in 1638 from the Safavids, prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their ruler Abbas II of Persia, who recaptured it in 1649. The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during the Mughal–Safavid War.[75] Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond the Khyber Pass to Ghazna and Kandahar.
Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia from 1646 to 1647 against the Khanate of Bukhara. With an total army of 75,000, Shah Jahan and his sons Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh temporarily occupied the territories of Balkh and Badakhshan. However, they retreated from the fruitless lands and Balkh and Badakhshan returned to Bukharan control.[76]
Relations with the Ottoman Empire
Shah Jahan sent an embassy to the Ottoman court in 1637. Led by Mir Zarif, it reached Sultan Murad IV the following year, while he was encamped in Baghdad. Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter which encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia. The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha. Shah Jahan received the ambassador in June 1640.[citation needed]
While he was encamped in Baghdad, Murad IV is known to have met ambassadors of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, who presented 1000 pieces of finely embroidered cloth and even armor. Murad IV gave them the finest weapons, saddles and Kaftans and ordered his forces to accompany the Mughals to the port of Basra, where they set sail to Thatta and finally Surat.[77] They exchanged lavish presents, but Shah Jahan was displeased with Sultan Murad's return letter, the tone of which he found discourteous. Sultan Murad's successor, Sultan Ibrahim, sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians, but there is no record of a reply.[77]
War with Portuguese
Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post at Port Hoogly. The post was heavily armed with cannons, battleships, fortified walls, and other instruments of war.[78] The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials and due to commercial competition the Mughal-controlled port of Saptagram began to slump. Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities of Jesuits in that region, notably when they were accused of abducting peasants. On 25 September 1632, the Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over the Bandel region, and the garrison was punished.[79] On 23 December 1635, Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished. The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits. However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy. He also banned the Jesuits in preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims.[80][81]Though in the decree, he also granted 777 bighas of rent-free land to the Augustinian Fathers and the Christian community in Bandel, currently in West Bengal, shaping its Portuguese heritage for times to come.[82]
Revolts against Shah Jahan
The Kolis of Gujarat rebelled against the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit, the Governor of Gujarat, to subdue the Kolis of Ahmedabad.[83] Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed in an effort to manage the Koli's activities. The Kolis of Kankrej in North Gujarat committed excesses and the Jam of Nawanagar refused to pay tribute to Shah Jahan. Soon, Ázam Khán was appointed in an effort to subdue the Kolis and bring order to the province. Ázam Khán marched against Koli rebels. When Ázam Khán reached Sidhpur, the local merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, a Chunvalia Koli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with a show of vigour before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar near Kheralu, sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder and guaranteed that he would not only cease to commit robberies but also pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli's territory, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and the other Khalílábád after his son. Additionally, he forced the surrender of the Jam of Nawanagar.[84] The next viceroy, Ísa Tarkhán, carried out financial reforms. In 1644, the Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy, who then proceeded to become engaged in religious disputes, such as the destruction of a Jain temple in Ahmedabad. Due to these disputes, he was replaced by Shaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis. Subsequently, prince Murad Bakhsh was appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored order and defeated the Koli rebels.[85]
When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658, Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers.[86] Upon learning of his assumption of the regency, his younger brothers, Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad Baksh, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb, the third son, gathered a well-trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during the Battle of Samugarh.[87] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort.
Jahanara Begum Sahib, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest surviving daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 22 January, he commended the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting the Kal'ma (Laa ilaaha ill allah) and verses from the Quran, Shah Jahan died, aged 74.
The Passing of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's chaplain Sayyid Muhammad Qanauji and Kazi Qurban of Agra came to the fort, moved his body to a nearby hall, washed it, enshrouded it, and put it in a coffin of sandalwood.[31]
Princess Jahanara had planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan's body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation. The body was taken to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.[88]
The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level of Taj Mahal
Contributions to architecture
Imperial Seals of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one of the greatest patrons of Mughal architecture.[89] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.[90] His most famous building was the Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empress Mumtaz Mahal. His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal has been heavily adapted into Indian art, literature and cinema. Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury, and several precious stones such as the Kohinoor.
Its structure was drawn with great care and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose. The building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick. Upon his death, his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal. Among his other constructions are the Red Fort also called the Delhi Fort or Lal Qila in Urdu, large sections of Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Wazir Khan Mosque, the Moti Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, sections of the Lahore Fort, the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar, the Mini Qutub Minar[91] in Hastsal, the Jahangir mausoleum–his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the Shahjahan Mosque. He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his rule. Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture.[92]
The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta, Sindh province of Pakistan (100km / 60 miles from Karachi) was built during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1647. The mosque is built with red bricks with blue coloured glaze tiles probably imported from another Sindh's town of Hala. The mosque has overall 93 domes and it is the world's largest mosque having such a number of domes. It has been built keeping acoustics in mind. A person speaking inside one end of the dome can be heard at the other end when the speech exceeds 100 decibels. It has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage list since 1993.[93]
Shah Jahan's favourite and most influential daughter. Jahanara became the First Lady (Padshah Begum) of the Mughal Empire after her mother's death, despite the fact that her father had three other consorts. She died unmarried.
Dara Shikoh Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba, Jalal ul-Kadir, Sultan Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Shah-i-Buland Iqbal
The eldest son and heir-apparent. He was favoured as a successor by his father, Shah Jahan, and his elder sister, Princess Jahanara Begum, but was defeated and later killed by his younger brother, Prince Muhiuddin (later the Emperor Aurangzeb), in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne. He married and had issue.
Succeeded his father as the sixth Mughal emperor after emerging victorious in the war of succession that took place after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657.
Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to her on 17 June 1631 in Burhanpur. She died unmarried.
Inscriptions
Shah Jahan inscription from a well at Makrana, Rajasthan
The inscription from Makrana, Nagaur District, dating back to 1651 AD, mentions Mirza Ali Baig, who was likely a local governor under Shah Jahan's rule.[100] It describes a notice he posted on a step-well, prohibiting low-caste individuals from using the well alongside higher-caste people.[101]
Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim, known by his imperial name Jahangir, was Emperor of Hindustan from 1605 until his death in 1627, and the fourth Mughal Emperor.
Mumtaz Mahal was the empress consort of Mughal Empire from 1628 to 1631 as the chief consort of the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal in Agra, often cited as one of the Wonders of the World, was commissioned by her husband to act as her tomb.
Nur Jahan, born Mehr-un-Nissa was the twentieth wife and chief consort of the Mughal emperor Jahangir.
Mirza Shah Shuja was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal. He was the governor of Bengal and Odisha and had his capital at Dhaka, in present day Bangladesh.
Mirza Muhammad Murad Bakhsh was a Mughal prince and the youngest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal. He was the Subahdar of Balkh, till he was replaced by his elder brother Aurangzeb in the year 1647.
Mihr-un-nissa Begum, also known as Banu Begum and Bahu Begum, and better known as Ladli Begum, was the daughter of Empress Nur Jahan and her first husband Sher Afgan of the Mughal Empire. She was the wife of Prince Shahryar Mirza, son of Emperor Jahangir.
Mirza Ghiyas Beg, also known by his title of I'timad-ud-Daulah, was an important official in the Mughal Empire, whose children served as wives, mothers, and generals of the Mughal emperors.
Shahryar Mirza was the fifth and youngest son of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. At the end of Jahangir's life and after his death, Shahryar made an attempt to become emperor, planning, supported and conspiracy by his one in influence and all-powerful stepmother Nur Jahan, who was also his mother-in-law. The succession was contested, though Shahryar exercised power, based in Lahore, from 7 November 1627 to 19 January 1628, but like his father, he allowed Nur Jahan to run the affairs and consolidate his reign, but she did not succeed, and he was defeated and was killed at the orders of his brother Khurram, better known as Shah Jahan once he took the throne. Shahryar would have been the fifth Mughal Emperor, but is usually not counted in the list of Mughal Emperors.
Khusrau Mirza was the eldest son of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir and his first wife, Shah Begum. The young prince displayed exceptional skills and wisdom and had the privilege to be groomed by the Mughal Emperor (Akbar) himself for the throne of the Mughal Empire. He turned out to be the most capable and qualified son of Jahangir but was befallen by an unfortunate destiny. Being Jahangir's eldest son, he was the heir-apparent to his father but Jahangir favoured his son Khurram Mirza as he held an animosity against Khusrau.
Nadira Banu Begum was a Mughal princess and the wife of Crown Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. After Aurangzeb's rise to power, Dara Shikoh's immediate family and supporters were in danger. Nadira died in 1659, a few months before her husband's execution, and was survived by two sons and a daughter.
Abu'l-Hasan entitled by the Mughal emperor Jahangir as Asaf Khan, was the Grand Vizier of the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. He previously served as the vakil of Jahangir. Asaf Khan is perhaps best known for being the father of Arjumand Banu Begum, the chief consort of Shah Jahan and the older brother of Empress Nur Jahan, and the maternal grandfather of mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Manavati Bai, also spelled Manvati Bai,, better known by her title, Jagat Gosain, was the second wife and the empress consort of the fourth Mughal emperor Jahangir and the mother of his successor, Shah Jahan.
Parviz Mirza was the second son of Mughal emperor Jahangir from his wife, Sahib Jamal. His daughter, Nadira Banu Begum, later became the wife of Dara Shikoh.
Ruqaiya Sultan Begum was the first wife and one of the chief consorts of the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.
Kandahari Begum was the first wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and the mother of his first child, Princess Parhez Banu Begum.
Izz-un-Nissa Begum was the third wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. She is popularly known by the title, Akbarabadi Mahal, and commissioned the Akbarabadi Mosque in Shahjahanabad. Less commonly, she is also referred to as Sirhindi Begum.
Parhez Banu Begum was a Mughal princess, the first child and eldest daughter of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan from his first wife, Qandahari Begum. She was also the older half-sister of her father's successor, the sixth Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Asmat Begum was the wife of Mirza Ghiyas Beg, the Prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahangir, and the mother of Mughal empress Nur Jahan, the power behind the emperor. Asmat Begum was also the paternal grandmother of Empress Mumtaz Mahal, for whom the Taj Mahal was built.
Hur-ul-Nisa was a Mughal princess, the first daughter of Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan and his chief consort, Mumtaz Mahal.
Luzzat-un-Nissa Begum was a Mughal princess, the youngest daughter of Emperor Jahangir and his Rathore wife, Jagat Gosain. She was also the full sister of Emperor Shah Jahan.
References
Notes
↑ "Lords of the Auspicious Conjunction: The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires and the Islamic Ecumene". Shah Jahan. LSE International Studies. Cambridge University Press. 18 June 2020. pp.167–213. doi:10.1017/9781108867948.007. ISBN978-1-108-49121-1.
↑ Shujauddin, Mohammad; Shujauddik, Razia (1967). The Life and Times of Noor Jahan. Lahore: Caravan Book House. p.121. OCLC638031657.
↑ Fenech, Louis E. (2014). "The Evolution of the Sikh Community". In Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p.46. ISBN978-0-19-969930-8. Jahangir's son, ponkua, better known as the emperor Shah Jahan the Architect
↑ Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E., eds. (2014). "Index". The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p.649. ISBN978-0-19-969930-8. Shah Jahan, Emperor Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram
↑ Kamboh, Muhammad Saleh. Amal I Salih. During her stay at Fatehpur, the mother of Shah Jahan, Hazrat Bilqis Makani, a resident of Agra became ill. The treatment did not work. Finally, on 4th Jamadi-ul-Awal, she died and according to her will, she was buried at Dehra Bagh, near Noor Manzil.
↑ Perston, Diana; Perston, Micheal. A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal. Although removed from his mother at birth, Shah Jahan had become devoted to her.
↑ Lal, Muni (1986). Shah Jahan. Vikas Publishing House. p.52.
↑ Prasad 1930, p.189 "During his grandfather's last illness, he [Khurram] refused to leave the bedside surrounded by his enemies. Neither the advice of his father nor the entreaties of his mother could prevail on him to prefer the safety of his life to his last duty to the father."
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.61. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.84. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.81. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Prasad 1930, p.190 "Khusrau conspired, rebelled, and lost the favour of his father ... Of all the sons of Jahangir, Khurram was marked out to be the heir-apparent and successor ... In 1608 the assignment of the sarkar of Hissar Firoz to him proclaimed to the world that he was intended for the throne."
↑ Irvine, William, ed. (1907), "Begum Saheb", Storia Do Mogor Vol 1, Oxford University press, pp.216–217
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.154. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Prasad 1930, p.239 "Constant skirmishes were thinning the Rajput ranks ... [Amar Singh] offered to recognize Mughal supremacy ... Jahangir gladly and unreservedly accepted the terms."
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.116. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.175. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.192. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.201. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. p.451. ISBN978-1-317-45158-7.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.228-29. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Holden, Edward S. (2004) [First published 1895]. Mughal Emperors of Hindustan (1398–1707). New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Service. p.257. ISBN978-81-206-1883-1.
↑ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.271. ISBN9780195127188.
↑ Ohlander, Erik; Curry, John, eds. (2012). Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800. Routledge. p.141. ISBN9781138789357.
↑ Campbell, James Macnabb (1896). "Chapter III. Mughal Viceroys. (A.D. 1573–1758)". History of Gujarát. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol.I(II). The Government Central Press. p.279. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
↑ Ashburner, Bhagvánlál Indraji (1839–1888) John Whaley Watson (1838–1889) Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1847–1925) L. R. "History of Gujarát". pp.278–283. Retrieved 16 October 2022– via Project Gutenberg.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1984) [First published 1981]. Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Vol.II (2nded.). Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p.59. ISBN978-8120710153. OCLC1008395679.
1 2 3 4 5 Sarker, Kobita (2007). Shah Jahan and his paradise on earth: the story of Shah Jahan's creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals. Kolkata: K.P. Bagchi & Co. p.40. ISBN978-8170743002.
↑ Begley, W. E.; Desai, Z.A., eds. (1989). Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture. p.23. ISBN978-0-295-96944-2.
↑ Archaeology progress report of the A.S.I., Western Circle. Central Archeological Library. p.40. Under management of Mirza Ali Baig. As the date A.H. 1061 is equivalent to A.D. 1650, the 25th year must refer to Shah Jahan's reign, Mirza Ali Baig must have been his local governor.
↑ A. Ghosh, (Director General of Archaeology in India) (22 December 1965). Indian Archaeology 1962-63, A Review. Government of India Press, Faridabad. p.60. INSCRIPTIONS OF THE MUGHALS, DISTRICTS JAIPUR, NAGAUR AND TONK.—Of the inscriptions of Shah Jahan, the one from Makrana, District Nagaur, records a notice put up on a step-well in А.Н. 1061 (A.D. 1651) by Mirza Ali Baig prohibiting the low-caste people from drawing water from the well along with the people of higher caste.
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