Female intrasexual competition

Last updated

Female intrasexual competition is competition between women over a potential mate. Such competition might include self-promotion, derogation of other women, and direct and indirect aggression toward other women. Factors that influence female intrasexual competition include the genetic quality of available mates, hormone levels, and interpersonal dynamics.

Contents

There are two modes of sexual selection: intersexual selection and intrasexual selection. Intersexual selection includes the display of desirable sexual characteristics to attract a potential mate. Intrasexual selection is competition between members of the same sex other over a potential mate.

Compared to males, females tend to prefer subtle rather than overt forms of intrasexual competition. [1] [2]

Self-promotion tactics

Self-promotion tactics are one of the main strategies that can be used during intrasexual competition for mates. [3] It is often perceived to be the most socially desirable strategy, as it can be perceived as self-improvement, rather than an attack on competitors. Self-promotion tactics are especially useful for when women are looking for short-term mates, as such tactics will directly promote their sexual availability. [4]

Luxury consumption

A woman shopping a luxury brand: Louis Vuitton (LV) Woman Shopping LV.jpg
A woman shopping a luxury brand: Louis Vuitton (LV)

Self-promotion tactics refers to the different strategies that women might use to make themselves look better compared to other competing women. For example, women are interested in luxury items that enhance their attractiveness. [5] Luxury items can indicate attractiveness by emphasising a higher status, which is a factor that potential mates will take into consideration.

It has been shown that when women are at their peak fertility, they will have an increased awareness and sensitivity to female intrasexual competition. This is due to the fact that when women are at their peak fertility, this is the most optimal time for them to mate and produce offspring. [6] However, this tends to be only applied in situations when women are faced with rivals who they consider to be attractive. When with an unattractive rival, women might not necessarily see them posing any threat, as they would feel more attractive in comparison. [7]

Cosmetic surgery

Facial rejuvenation (face-lift) procedure includes elevation of low eyebrows, eyelid operations and restoration of the natural fullness of the lips Face Lift 01 Dr. Ristow.jpg
Facial rejuvenation (face-lift) procedure includes elevation of low eyebrows, eyelid operations and restoration of the natural fullness of the lips
East Asian blepharoplasty, a surgery designed to add a crease to the eyelid, has become one of the most common facial surgical procedures in Asian countries Une Sud-Coreenne, avant (en haut) et apres (en bas) une blepharoplastie d'Asie de l'Est.png
East Asian blepharoplasty, a surgery designed to add a crease to the eyelid, has become one of the most common facial surgical procedures in Asian countries

By using plastic surgery, women can surgically change their appearances to make themselves more attractive. They can surgically alter their faces and bodies according to their wishes. They can use botulinum toxin to prevent wrinkles and get face lifts. Or they can use get liposuction to remove fat and achieve a more desirable body. Research has shown that the waist–hip ratio (WHR) of a female is a good indicator of their health, and that males tend to have a preference for females with a low WHR. [8] When comparing women's pre- and post-operative photographs, post-operative photographs where women have a lower WHR are rated as more attractive, regardless of their weight gain or their body mass index (BMI). [9] Culture plays a role in the type of plastic surgery a woman gets. The beauty standards for Westerners and Easterners are extremely different. Western models tend to be used to promote clothing and to portray seductiveness, whereas Asian models tend to be used to promote hair and skin products. Research suggest that Western models are more body-oriented. [10] [11]

Regardless, by using cosmetic surgery, females can change various aspects of their body to make themselves more attractive by displaying a more desirable waist–hip ratio. This can lead to competition with other females who may be considered less attractive in comparison. When women change their appearances, such as by applying cosmetic products and wearing sexy or stylish clothes, do make a difference and has been proven to be effective. [3]

Clothing and make-up

Wearing form-fitting attire, such as dresses that highlight the waist and hips or pants that accentuate curves, is a common strategy to enhance the overall figure. Such outfits highlight the importance of the waist-hip ratio (WHR). [12]

Short skirts, high-heels, and attire that showcases the legs. These clothing choices subtly emphasize leg length and overall body proportions, which are characteristics often deemed attractive.

Makeup, too, plays a role in self-promotion, allowing to enhance certain facial features and draw attention to specific areas such as the eyes and lips. [13]

Competitor derogation

There are a number of competitive strategies that females may use in a bid to appear more attractive in comparison to other females. Whilst males may use direct forms of aggression during intrasexual competition [14] [15] females typically compete for access to desired mates through the use of indirect aggression. Unlike direct aggression which involves delivering harm face to face, [16] indirect aggression describes acts that are done circuitously, where an individual aims to cause harm but attempts to appear as if they have no harmful intentions. [17] In the context of intrasexual competition, indirect aggression works to reduce the opportunities the rival may have in securing access to the desired mate to, therefore, increase one's chances of reproductive success. [18] These include behaviours such as shunning, social exclusion, getting others to dislike the individual, spreading rumours and criticizing the rival's appearance.

Female derogation

Female derogation is a form of indirect aggression where females attempt to reduce the perceived value of another female 'rival'. Fisher (2004) [19] studied female derogation and the effects of estrogen levels on this form of competition. Females disclosed their ovulation status and rated the attractiveness of male and female faces. Competitor derogation (giving low ratings) towards same-sex rivals occurred frequently when women were at their most fertile stages. In contrast, women gave same-sex rivals higher ratings during the least fertile stages of their ovulation. This indirect form of competition appears exclusive toward females as findings also showed that women, irrespective of ovulation status (high or low), showed no difference in the rating of male faces. Supporting research has also found that younger women who are considered as having high fertility, gossip about other women more than older women, who are no longer at their most fertile stage. [20]

Indeed, indirect aggression appears more prevalent amongst (or exclusive to) females than males who are said to engage in more direct forms of competition. [21] Research studying the relationship between indicators of attractiveness, such as physical attractiveness and indirect victimisation, showed that the likelihood of experiencing indirect victimization increased by 35% for females who perceived themselves as physically attractive. [22] In contrast, being a male who is physically attractive decreased the chances of experiencing such indirect victimization. This also highlights how the physical attractiveness of a female is a trigger for indirect aggression and forms a core part of intersexual selection between the sexes.

Female derogation is also used to enforce equality amongst females which prevents high-status ambitious females from using their status to gain resources, allies and mates at the expense of other females. Thus attempts to gain social status are punished while norms of "niceness" (which is defined as a lack of competitiveness) and equality dominates as a social norm amongst females. Equality is enforced by threat of social exclusion (which can be directed against any female but females attempting to gain status are more likely to be targets) and low thresholds for dissolving relationships when inequality arises. Within a peer group, a high-status woman who tries to interfere with another's goals risks social derision and exclusion. [2]

Slut-shaming

Another form of competitor derogation that is instrumental in making rivals appear less desirable is slut-shaming. In slut-shaming, females criticize and derogate same-sex rivals for engaging in sexual behaviors that are deemed "unacceptable" by society's standards, as it violates social expectations and norms with regards to their gender role. For example, an act of sexual promiscuity demonstrated by a female is often considered non-conventional and inappropriate as such behaviors are not viewed as acts that constitute femininity. Females may choose to personally confront or spread rumors and gossip about the promiscuous activity of another female. Buss and Dedden explored sex differences in competitor derogation to investigate the tactics that are commonly adopted by both sexes for intrasexual competition. [23] Researchers presented both sexes with a list of tactics that are often employed by individuals to derogate same-sex competitors in an attempt to make them look undesirable to the opposite sex. On a scale from 1 (likely) to 7 (unlikely), participants rated the likelihood that members of their own sex would perform each act. Results revealed that tactics that pointed out a competitor's promiscuity were used by females more frequently than males. These involved "calling her a tramp", "telling everyone that she sleeps around a lot" and that "she cheats on men". Indeed, accusations of promiscuity are a frequent cause of female-female violence, where females may physically retaliate in a bid to defend their sexual reputation. [24] British schoolgirls were surveyed and asked questions about their involvement in fights. In addition to 89% stating that they had actually been involved in a fight, 46% of reported fights were attacks on personal integrity related to promiscuity or gossiping. [25]

With an ultimate goal of enhancing reproductive success at the expense of others, slut-shaming effectively works to arouse suspicion and cause suitors to question the fidelity of these females. In the long term, men may have doubts regarding the paternity of any offspring produced and since humans strive for reproductive success, (which, for a man is to reproduce and to continually invest in his own children), the decision to mate with such an individual drastically reduces the chances of reproductive success. Considering this and the high-value that men attach to women who practice chastity, men are less likely to mate with a supposedly promiscuous female due to the fear of becoming a cuckold.

The effectiveness of strategies: competitor derogation vs. self-promotion tactics

Generally speaking, competitor derogation is often rated as less effective than self-promotion tactics. Men and women tend to judge self-promotion tactics that show resource potential and sexual availability as highly effective for short and long-term mating, respectively. [26] Women, relative to men, appear more likely to engage in self-promotion than competitor derogation tactics. [27] With females having a tendency to engage in more indirect forms of aggression/derogation such as spreading rumors and shunning (social manipulation), [17] [18] studies investigate the extent to which such strategies enable females success by increasing their mating opportunities. Common indicators of reproductive success are sexual activity and dating behaviors. Research has found that the use of indirect aggression is positively correlated with increased dating behavior and early engagement in sexual activity. Arnocky and Pavilion [28] investigated whether the use of victimization or personally experiencing victimization could predict the dating behavior of adolescents over a year. In a follow-up assessment, indirect aggression (peer-nominated) was found to predict dating behavior one year after the initial assessment. Moreover, indirect aggression appeared to be a more powerful predictor of dating behavior than other factors such as initial dating status, peer-rated attractiveness, peer-perceived popularity, and age. Overall, females who used indirect aggression were more likely to be dating in comparison to victimized individuals, who were less likely to have a dating partner. The notion that peer aggression is associated with adaptive dating outcomes is further supported by studies that note that females who frequently displayed indirect aggression began dating much earlier in life than individuals who experienced female-female peer victimization, for whom dating behavior had a much later onset. [29] Dating popularity is also found to have a strong association with the use of indirect aggression. [30] With regards to sexual activity, White et al. [31] investigated the influence of peer victimization and perpetuated aggression on reproductive opportunities amongst young adults. Measures of sexual activity such as the number of previous sexual partners and the age of their first sexual intercourse were obtained alongside measures of their social experiences in middle and high school. Results found that females who experienced more peer aggression during adolescence had their first sexual intercourse at a later age. In contrast, females who perpetuated high levels of indirect peer aggression tended to have their first sexual encounter at earlier stages of adolescence.

Variables that influence female competition

Females often compete using low-risk strategies compared to males as females have to provide primary care and protection to their offspring. [32] Fisher (2015) suggested that attractiveness is the single route by which women compete and men have shown a preference for attractive women. [33]

Other factors that influence women's intrasexual competition are:

High genetic quality of the males

Females will promote themselves more often when males demonstrate various abilities to provide secure resources, protection for offspring, or when the costs of competing are inferior to the benefits gained. [34] They choose males with the highest possible qualities that can maximise reproductive success. Attractiveness and gene quality are both believed to be highly correlated. [35] [36] Some research suggests that male attractiveness is biased by female's phenotypic quality, male attractiveness does not necessarily correspond to their gene quality. [37] This leads to the state-dependent choice theory which suggests females with lower qualities prefer low-quality males than high-quality males. [38] [39] [40] Promiscuity does not affect attractiveness rankings if physical attractiveness outweighs this variable. [41]

Ovarian hormones and hormonal variations

The ovarian cycle phase is an emerging concern in exploring issues related to female intrasexual competitive behaviour. It has been found that when fertility rate was maximised during the ovarian phase, women gave significantly lower ratings of attractiveness to other females. Ovarian hormones affect how females view their potential competitors and cause them to behave more competitively. [19] [42]

Many studies implied that testosterone levels were one of the key factors in aggressive competitive behaviour in social situations. [43] [44] When testosterone is produced in the brain and gonads in both genders, the androgen receptors in neural and peripheral tissues are being possessed and trigger behavioural and physiological responses to testosterone. The role of androgenic steroids is to activate or facilitate aggressive behaviour. [45] High levels of oestrogen are shown to have an effect on women's derogation on potential competitors (e.g. rating other female faces as less attractive) but there is no effect on ratings of male attractiveness. [19]

Interpersonal dynamics

Females often compete with their own sex to gain the attention of potential mates with high genetic qualities in order to induce reproductive success. [46] [47] Miller et al. (2011)’s study revealed that presence of another sex individual leads to testosterone enhancement. [48]

The ratio of females to males in the course of competition might alter salivary testosterone levels in both genders which lead to competition. [46] The nonequivalent ratio of men with "good genes" to a large number of accessible females also leads to female intrasexual competition. Biosocial status hypothesis [46] indicated that to win in the female competition, it is thought to enhance in testosterone production thus facilitating violent, prevailing behaviours and exhibition of high status. Whereas, losing in female competition lowers testosterone levels which weaken the tendency of competing. [49] [50] Testosterone levels correspond to various factors such as form of competition, [43] characteristics of opponent, [51] psychological state and baseline hormone levels of the person competing.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection</span> Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates

Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with, and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex. These two forms of selection mean that some individuals have greater reproductive success than others within a population, for example because they are more attractive or prefer more attractive partners to produce offspring. Successful males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to one or more fertile females. Females can maximise the return on the energy they invest in reproduction by selecting and mating with the best males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Testosterone</span> Primary male sex hormone

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and androgen in males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testicles and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair. It is associated with increased aggression, sex drive, dominance, courtship display, and a wide range of behavioral characteristics. In addition, testosterone in both sexes is involved in health and well-being, where it has a significant effect on overall mood, cognition, social and sexual behavior, metabolism and energy output, the cardiovascular system, and in the prevention of osteoporosis. Insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty, accumulation of adipose fat tissue within the body, anxiety and depression, sexual performance issues, and bone loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggression</span> Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual attraction</span> Attraction on the basis of sexual desire

Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract other people sexually, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics, movements, voice, or smell, among other things. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume or hair style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Sociosexuality, sometimes called sociosexual orientation, is the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship. Individuals who are more restricted sociosexually are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners. Individuals who are more unrestricted sociosexually are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, commitment or closeness.

Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors for example, testosterone or sociobiological theories). The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological adaptation</span>

A psychological adaptation is a functional, cognitive or behavioral trait that benefits an organism in its environment. Psychological adaptations fall under the scope of evolved psychological mechanisms (EPMs), however, EPMs refer to a less restricted set. Psychological adaptations include only the functional traits that increase the fitness of an organism, while EPMs refer to any psychological mechanism that developed through the processes of evolution. These additional EPMs are the by-product traits of a species’ evolutionary development, as well as the vestigial traits that no longer benefit the species’ fitness. It can be difficult to tell whether a trait is vestigial or not, so some literature is more lenient and refers to vestigial traits as adaptations, even though they may no longer have adaptive functionality. For example, xenophobic attitudes and behaviors, some have claimed, appear to have certain EPM influences relating to disease aversion, however, in many environments these behaviors will have a detrimental effect on a person's fitness. The principles of psychological adaptation rely on Darwin's theory of evolution and are important to the fields of evolutionary psychology, biology, and cognitive science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual jealousy</span> Psychological concept

Sexual jealousy is a special form of jealousy in sexual relationships, based on suspected or imminent sexual infidelity. The concept is studied in the field of evolutionary psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mate choice</span> One of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur

Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a "selective response by animals to particular stimuli" which can be observed as behavior. In other words, before an animal engages with a potential mate, they first evaluate various aspects of that mate which are indicative of quality—such as the resources or phenotypes they have—and evaluate whether or not those particular trait(s) are somehow beneficial to them. The evaluation will then incur a response of some sort.

<i>Hetaerina</i> Genus of damselflies

Hetaerina is a genus of damselflies in the family Calopterygidae. They are commonly known as rubyspots because of the deep red wing bases of the males. The name is from Ancient Greek: ἑταίρα (hetaira), courtesan. H. rudis, the Guatemalan rubyspot, is considered vulnerable on the IUCN Red Data List.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in humans</span> Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans

Sexual selection in humans concerns the concept of sexual selection, introduced by Charles Darwin as an element of his theory of natural selection, as it affects humans. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best reproductive success. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

Anne C. Campbell was a British academic and author specializing in evolutionary psychology. Her research was largely concerned with sex differences in aggression between men and women. She was professor of psychology at Durham University.

Odour is sensory stimulation of the olfactory membrane of the nose by a group of molecules. Certain body odours are connected to human sexual attraction. Humans can make use of body odour subconsciously to identify whether a potential mate will pass on favourable traits to their offspring. Body odour may provide significant cues about the genetic quality, health and reproductive success of a potential mate.

The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between testosterone and aggression in mating contexts. It proposes that testosterone promotes aggression when it would be beneficial for reproduction, such as mate guarding, or strategies designed to prevent the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The positive correlation between reproductive aggression and testosterone levels is seen to be strongest during times of social instability. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels are a function of mating system, paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual swelling</span> Swelling of genital and perineal skin in some mammals as a sign of fertility

Sexual swelling, sexual skin, or anogenital tumescence refers to localized engorgement of the anus and vulva region of some female primates that vary in size over the course of the menstrual cycle. Thought to be an honest signal of fertility, male primates are attracted to these swellings; preferring, and competing for, females with the largest swellings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in mammals</span> Mode of natural selection

Sexual selection in mammals is a process the study of which started with Charles Darwin's observations concerning sexual selection, including sexual selection in humans, and in other mammals, consisting of male–male competition and mate choice that mold the development of future phenotypes in a population for a given species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human mating strategies</span> Courtship behavior of humans

In evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, human mating strategies are a set of behaviors used by individuals to select, attract, and retain mates. Mating strategies overlap with reproductive strategies, which encompass a broader set of behaviors involving the timing of reproduction and the trade-off between quantity and quality of offspring.

Mate value is derived from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and sexual selection, as well as the social exchange theory of relationships. Mate value is defined as the sum of traits that are perceived as desirable, representing genetic quality and/or fitness, an indication of a potential mate's reproductive success. Based on mate desirability and mate preference, mate value underpins mate selection and the formation of romantic relationships.

The ovulatory shift hypothesis holds that women experience evolutionarily adaptive changes in subconscious thoughts and behaviors related to mating during different parts of the ovulatory cycle. It suggests that what women want, in terms of men, changes throughout the menstrual cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory</span>

The evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory is a conceptual framework which seeks to explain trends in violent and criminal behavior from an evolutionary and biological perspective. It was first proposed by the sociologist Lee Ellis in 2005 in his paper "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality" published in the European Journal of Criminology. Since then, it has expanded into an interdisciplinary field that intersects biology, psychology, and sociology. The theory rests on two propositions. The first is that in human mating behavior, females prefer males that appear to be more competent providers of resources, and so males exhibit increased competitive behavior than females to obtain access to those resources. The second is that biological mechanisms lead to differential development in the male brain which then mediates the increased competitive behaviors that cause criminality. Though it was originally intended to explain high rates of criminality in young men, it has since been used as a framework to explain gang behavior, terrorism, and the rise of the criminal justice system.

References

  1. ↑ Benenson, Joyce F.; Abadzi, Helen (2020). "Contest versus scramble competition: Sex differences in the quest for status". Current Opinion in Psychology. 33: 62–68. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.013. PMID   31400660. S2CID   199342589.
  2. 1 2 Benenson, Joyce F. (2013). "The development of human female competition: allies and adversaries". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1631). 20130079. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0079 . PMC   3826208 . PMID   24167309.
  3. 1 2 Fisher, Maryanne; Cox, Anthony (2011-03-01). "Four strategies used during intrasexual competition for mates". Personal Relationships. 18 (1): 20–38. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01307.x. ISSN   1475-6811.
  4. ↑ Schmitt, D. P.; Buss, D. M. (1996-06-01). "Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70 (6): 1185–1204. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.387.5516 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1185. ISSN   0022-3514. PMID   8667162.
  5. ↑ Hudders, L.; Backer, C. De; Fisher, M.; Vyncke, P. (2014-07-01). "The Rival Wears Prada: Luxury Consumption as a Female Competition Strategy". Evolutionary Psychology. 12 (3): 570–587. doi: 10.1177/147470491401200306 . ISSN   1474-7049. PMID   25299993.
  6. ↑ Durante, Kristina M.; Griskevicius, Vladas; Hill, Sarah E.; Perilloux, Carin; Li, Norman P. (2011-04-01). "Ovulation, Female Competition, and Product Choice: Hormonal Influences on Consumer Behavior". Journal of Consumer Research. 37 (6): 921–934. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.173.898 . doi:10.1086/656575. ISSN   0093-5301. S2CID   948713.
  7. ↑ Haselton, Martie G.; Mortezaie, Mina; Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Bleske-Rechek, April; Frederick, David A. (2007-01-01). "Ovulatory shifts in human female ornamentation: Near ovulation, women dress to impress". Hormones and Behavior. 51 (1): 40–45. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.07.007. PMID   17045994. S2CID   9268718.
  8. ↑ Singh, Devendra; Singh, Dorian (2011-02-06). "Shape and Significance of Feminine Beauty: An Evolutionary Perspective". Sex Roles. 64 (9–10): 723–731. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9938-z. ISSN   0360-0025. S2CID   144644793.
  9. ↑ Singh, Devendra; Randall, Patrick K. (2007-07-01). "Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist–hip ratio (WHR) and women's attractiveness". Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (2): 329–340. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.003.
  10. ↑ Frith, Katherine Toland; Cheng, Hong; Shaw, Ping (2004-01-01). "Race and Beauty: A Comparison of Asian and Western Models in Women's Magazine Advertisements". Sex Roles. 50 (1–2): 53–61. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000011072.84489.e2. ISSN   0360-0025. S2CID   31114363.
  11. ↑ Frith, Katherine; Shaw, Ping; Cheng, Hong (2005-03-01). "The Construction of Beauty: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Women's Magazine Advertising". Journal of Communication. 55 (1): 56–70. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x. ISSN   1460-2466.
  12. ↑ Kościński, Krzysztof (July 2014). "Assessment of Waist-to-Hip Ratio Attractiveness in Women: An Anthropometric Analysis of Digital Silhouettes". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 43 (5): 989–997. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0166-1. ISSN   0004-0002. PMC   4050298 . PMID   23975738.
  13. ↑ Hendrie, Colin; Chapman, Rhiannon; Gill, Charlotte (2020-01-01). "Women's strategic use of clothing and make-up". Human Ethology. 35 (1): 16–26. doi: 10.22330/he/35/016-026 .
  14. ↑ Shackelford, Todd (2012). The Oxford handbook of evolutionary perspectives on violence, homicide, and war. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199738403.
  15. ↑ Benenson, Joyce F. (2009-08-01). "Dominating versus eliminating the competition: Sex differences in human intrasexual aggression". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 32 (3–4): 268–269. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999046X. ISSN   1469-1825.
  16. ↑ Richardson, Deborah R.; Green, Laura R. (1999-01-01). "Social sanction and threat explanations of gender effects on direct and indirect aggression". Aggressive Behavior. 25 (6): 425–434. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2337(1999)25:6<425::aid-ab3>3.3.co;2-n. ISSN   1098-2337.
  17. 1 2 Bjorkqvist, Kaj; Österman, Karin; Lagerspetz, Kirsti (June 1, 1994). "Sex differences in covert aggression among adults". Aggressive Behavior. 20 (1): 27–33. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:1<27::AID-AB2480200105>3.0.CO;2-Q.
  18. 1 2 Vaillancourt, Tracy (2013-12-05). "Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy?". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 368 (1631): 20130080. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0080. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   3826209 . PMID   24167310.
  19. 1 2 3 Fisher, M. L. (2004). "Female intrasexual competition decreases female facial attractiveness". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 271 (Suppl_5): S283–S285. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0160. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   1810076 . PMID   15503995.
  20. ↑ Massar, Karlijn; Buunk, Abraham P.; Rempt, Sanna (2012-01-01). "Age differences in women's tendency to gossip are mediated by their mate value". Personality and Individual Differences. 52 (1): 106–109. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.013. S2CID   145602586.
  21. ↑ Campbell, A (2004). "Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts". Journal of Sex Research. 41 (1): 16–26. doi:10.1080/00224490409552210. PMID   15216421. S2CID   27896552.
  22. ↑ Leenaars, Lindsey S.; Dane, Andrew V.; Marini, Zopito A. (2008-07-01). "Evolutionary perspective on indirect victimization in adolescence: the role of attractiveness, dating and sexual behavior". Aggressive Behavior. 34 (4): 404–415. doi:10.1002/ab.20252. ISSN   1098-2337. PMID   18351598.
  23. ↑ Buss, David M.; Dedden, Lisa A. (1990-08-01). "Derogation of Competitors". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 7 (3): 395–422. doi:10.1177/0265407590073006. hdl: 2027.42/69020 . ISSN   0265-4075. S2CID   145522528.
  24. ↑ Campell, Anne; Gibbs, John J., eds. (1986). Violent transactions: the limits of personality. New York, USA: Blackwell.
  25. ↑ Campbell, Anne (1995-03-01). "A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression". Ethology and Sociobiology. 16 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(94)00072-F.
  26. ↑ Schmitt, David P.; Buss, David M. (1996). "Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: Sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70 (6): 1185–1204. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.387.5516 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1185. PMID   8667162.
  27. ↑ Fisher, Maryanne; Cox, Anthony; Gordon, Fiona (2009-12-01). "Self-promotion versus competitor derogation: the influence of sex and romantic relationship status on intrasexual competition strategy selection". Journal of Evolutionary Psychology. 7 (4): 287–308. doi: 10.1556/JEP.7.2009.4.6 . ISSN   1789-2082.
  28. ↑ Arnocky, Steven; Vaillancourt, Tracy (2012-04-01). "A Multi-Informant Longitudinal Study on the Relationship between Aggression, Peer Victimization, and Dating Status in Adolescence". Evolutionary Psychology. 10 (2): 147470491201000207. doi: 10.1177/147470491201000207 . ISSN   1474-7049. PMC   10426897 .
  29. ↑ Gallup, Andrew C.; O'Brien, Daniel T.; Wilson, David Sloan (2011-05-01). "Intrasexual peer aggression and dating behavior during adolescence: an evolutionary perspective". Aggressive Behavior. 37 (3): 258–267. doi:10.1002/ab.20384. ISSN   1098-2337. PMID   21433032.
  30. ↑ Pellegrini, Anthony D.; Long, Jeffrey D. (2003-07-01). "A sexual selection theory longitudinal analysis of sexual segregation and integration in early adolescence". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 85 (3): 257–278. doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00060-2. ISSN   0022-0965. PMID   12810038.
  31. ↑ White, Daniel D.; Gallup, Andrew C.; Gallup, Gordon G. (2010-01-01). "Indirect peer aggression in adolescence and reproductive behavior". Evolutionary Psychology. 8 (1): 49–65. doi: 10.1177/147470491000800106 . ISSN   1474-7049. PMC   10480904 . PMID   22947779.
  32. ↑ Fisher, M. (2015). "Women's competition for mates: Experimental findings leading to ethological studies" (PDF). Human Ethology Bulletin. 30: 53–70.
  33. ↑ Buss, David M. (1989). "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 12 (1): 1–14. doi: 10.1017/s0140525x00023992 .
  34. ↑ Palombit, R.A.; Cheney, D.L.; Seyfarth, R.M. (2001). "Female–female competition for male 'friends' in wild chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus)". Animal Behaviour. 61 (6): 1159–1171. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1690. ISSN   0003-3472. S2CID   5713145.
  35. ↑ Geary, David C. (2005). "Evolution of life-history trade-offs in mate attractiveness and health: Comment on Weeden and Sabini (2005)". Psychological Bulletin. 131 (5): 654–657. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.654. PMID   16187850.
  36. ↑ Weeden, Jason; Sabini, John (2005). "Physical Attractiveness and Health in Western Societies: A Review". Psychological Bulletin. 131 (5): 635–653. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.635. PMID   16187849. S2CID   24782931.
  37. ↑ Riebel K, Holveck MJ, Verhulst S, Fawcett TW (2010). "Are high-quality mates always attractive?: State-dependent mate preferences in birds and humans". Commun Integr Biol. 3 (3): 271–3. doi:10.4161/cib.3.3.11557. PMC   2918774 . PMID   20714411.
  38. ↑ Buston, P. M.; Emlen, S. T. (2003). "Cognitive processes underlying human mate choice: The relationship between self-perception and mate preference in Western society". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (15): 8805–8810. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.8805B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1533220100 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   166394 . PMID   12843405.
  39. ↑ Todd, P. M.; Penke, L.; Fasolo, B.; Lenton, A. P. (2007). "Different cognitive processes underlie human mate choices and mate preferences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (38): 15011–15016. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415011T. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0705290104 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   1986604 . PMID   17827279.
  40. ↑ Little, A. C.; Burt, D. M.; Penton-Voak, I. S.; Perrett, D. I. (2001). "Self-perceived attractiveness influences human female preferences for sexual dimorphism and symmetry in male faces". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1462): 39–44. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1327. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   1087598 . PMID   12123296.
  41. ↑ Rucas, Stacey L.; Gurven, Michael; Kaplan, Hillard; Winking, Jeff; Gangestad, Steve; Crespo, Maria (2006-01-01). "Female intrasexual competition and reputational effects on attractiveness among the Tsimane of Bolivia". Evolution and Human Behavior. 27 (1): 40–52. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.001. ISSN   1090-5138.
  42. ↑ Stockley, Paula; Bro-Jørgensen, Jakob (2011). "Female competition and its evolutionary consequences in mammals". Biological Reviews. 86 (2): 341–366. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00149.x. ISSN   1464-7931. PMID   20636474. S2CID   40904511.
  43. 1 2 Archer, John (2006). "Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 30 (3): 319–345. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007. ISSN   0149-7634. PMID   16483890. S2CID   26405251.
  44. ↑ Dabbs, James M.; Hargrove, Marian F.; Heusel, Colleen (1996). "Testosterone differences among college fraternities: well-behaved vs rambunctious". Personality and Individual Differences. 20 (2): 157–161. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00190-5. ISSN   0191-8869.
  45. ↑ French, J. A.; Mustoe, A. C.; Cavanaugh, J.; Birnie, A. K. (2013). "The influence of androgenic steroid hormones on female aggression in 'atypical' mammals". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1631): 20130084. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0084. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   3826213 . PMID   24167314.
  46. 1 2 3 Miller, Saul L.; Maner, Jon K.; McNulty, James K. (2012). "Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels". Evolution and Human Behavior. 33 (1): 57–63. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006. ISSN   1090-5138.
  47. ↑ Buss, David M. (1988). "The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (4): 616–628. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.616. ISSN   0022-3514. PMID   3367282.[ dead link ]
  48. ↑ López, Hassan H.; Hay, Aleena C.; Conklin, Phoebe H. (2009). "Attractive men induce testosterone and cortisol release in women". Hormones and Behavior. 56 (1): 84–92. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.004. ISSN   0018-506X. PMID   19303881. S2CID   25498105.
  49. ↑ Booth, Alan; Shelley, Greg; Mazur, Allan; Tharp, Gerry; Kittok, Roger (1989). "Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition". Hormones and Behavior. 23 (4): 556–571. doi:10.1016/0018-506X(89)90042-1. ISSN   0018-506X. PMID   2606468. S2CID   36664488.
  50. ↑ Mccaul, K (1992). "Winning, losing, mood, and testosterone". Hormones and Behavior. 26 (4): 486–504. doi:10.1016/0018-506X(92)90016-O. ISSN   0018-506X. PMID   1478633. S2CID   8027732.
  51. ↑ van der Meij, Leander; Buunk, Abraham P.; Almela, Mercedes; Salvador, Alicia (2010). "Testosterone responses to competition: The opponent's psychological state makes it challenging". Biological Psychology. 84 (2): 330–335. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.017. ISSN   0301-0511. PMID   20359521. S2CID   7488612.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.