Pair bond

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Northern gannet pair Two Gannets edit 2.jpg
Northern gannet pair

In biology, a pair bond is the strong affinity that develops in some species between a mating pair, often leading to the production and rearing of young and potentially a lifelong bond. Pair-bonding is a term coined in the 1940s [1] that is frequently used in sociobiology and evolutionary biology circles. The term often implies either a lifelong socially monogamous relationship or a stage of mating interaction in socially monogamous species. It is sometimes used in reference to human relationships.

Contents

Varieties

Black-backed jackals are one of very few monogamous mammals. This pair uses teamwork to hunt down prey and scavenge. They will stay together until one of the two dies. Schakale Kreuzkap 02.jpg
Black-backed jackals are one of very few monogamous mammals. This pair uses teamwork to hunt down prey and scavenge. They will stay together until one of the two dies.

According to evolutionary psychologists David P. Barash and Judith Lipton, from their 2001 book The Myth of Monogamy, there are several varieties of pair bonds: [2]

Human pair bonding

Pair-bonded human male and female Iunosha ukhazhivaet za devushkoi.jpg
Pair-bonded human male and female

Humans can experience all of the above-mentioned varieties of pair bonds. These bonds can be temporary or last a lifetime. Pair bonding is a behavioral and physiological bond between two mated individuals, and is rare among non-human primates. [3] Humans also engage in social pair bonding, where two individuals will form a close relationship that does not involve sex. [4] In humans and other vertebrates, pair bonds are created by a combination of social interaction and biological factors including neurotransmitters like oxytocin, vasopressin, and dopamine. [4] [5]

Pair bonds are a biological phenomenon and are not equivalent to the human social institution of marriage. Married couples are not necessarily pair bonded. Marriage may be a consequence of pair bonding and vice versa. One of the functions of romantic love is pair bonding. [6] [4]

Examples

Birds

Close to ninety percent [7] of known avian species are monogamous, compared to five percent of known mammalian species. The majority of monogamous avians form long-term pair bonds which typically result in seasonal mating: these species breed with a single partner, raise their young, and then pair up with a new mate to repeat the cycle during the next season. Some avians such as swans, bald eagles, California condors, and the Atlantic Puffin are not only monogamous, but also form lifelong pair bonds. [8]

When discussing the social life of the bank swallow, Lipton and Barash state: [2]

For about four days immediately prior to egg-laying, when copulations lead to fertilization, the male bank swallow is very busy, attentively guarding his female. Before this time, as well as after—that is, when her eggs are not ripe, and again after his genes are safely tucked away inside the shells—he goes seeking extra-pair copulations with the mates of other males…who, of course, are busy with defensive mate-guarding of their own.

Male (left) and female (right) mallard ducks form seasonal monogamous pairs. Mallard ducks pair.jpeg
Male (left) and female (right) mallard ducks form seasonal monogamous pairs.

In various species, males provide parental care and females mate with multiple males. For example, recent studies show that extra-pair copulation frequently occurs in monogamous birds in which a "social" father provides intensive care for its "social" offspring. [9] Furthermore, it was observed that newly formed pair bonds in biparental plovers were comparatively weaker than those in uniparental plovers. [10]

Fish

A University of Florida scientist reports that male sand gobies work harder at building nests and taking care of eggs when females are present – the first time such "courtship parental care" has been documented in any species. [11]

In the cichlid species Tropheus moorii , a male and female will form a temporary monogamous pair bond and spawn; after which, the female leaves to mouthbrood the eggs on her own. T. moorii broods exhibit genetic monogamy (all eggs in a brood are fertilized by a single male). [12] Another mouth brooding cichlid – the Lake Tanganyika cichlid (Xenotilapia rotundiventralis) has been shown that mating pairs maintain pair bonds at least until the shift of young from female to male. [13] More recently the Australian Murray cod has been seen maintaining pair bonds over 3 years. [14]

Pair bonding may also have non-reproductive benefits, such as assisted resource defense. [15] Recent study comparing two species of butterflyfishes, C. baronessa and C. lunulatus , indicate increase in food and energy reserves compared to individual fish. [16] However, there is limited research on the advantages of long-term pair boding and increased fitness.

Mammals

Monogamous voles (such as prairie voles) have significantly greater density and distribution of vasopressin receptors in their brain when compared to polygamous voles. These differences are located in the ventral forebrain and the dopamine-mediated reward pathway.

Peptide arginine vasopressin (AVP), dopamine, and oxytocin act in this region to coordinate rewarding activities such as mating, and regulate selective affiliation. These species-specific differences have shown to correlate with social behaviors, and in monogamous prairie voles are important for facilitation of pair bonding. When compared to montane voles, which are polygamous, monogamous prairie voles appear to have more of these AVP and oxytocin neurotransmitter receptors. It is important that these receptors are in the reward centers of the brain because that could lead to a conditioned partner preference in the prairie vole compared to the montane vole which would explain why the prairie vole forms pair bonds and the montane vole does not. [7] [17]

As noted above, different species of voles vary in their sexual behavior, and these differences correlate with expression levels of vasopressin receptors in reward areas of the brain. Scientists were able to change adult male montane voles' behavior to resemble that of monogamous prairie voles in experiments in which vasopressin receptors were introduced into the brain of male montane voles.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vasopressin</span> Mammalian hormone released from the pituitary gland

Human vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the AVP gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It then travels down the axon terminating in the posterior pituitary, and is released from vesicles into the circulation in response to extracellular fluid hypertonicity (hyperosmolality). AVP has two primary functions. First, it increases the amount of solute-free water reabsorbed back into the circulation from the filtrate in the kidney tubules of the nephrons. Second, AVP constricts arterioles, which increases peripheral vascular resistance and raises arterial blood pressure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxytocin</span> Peptide hormone and neuropeptide

Oxytocin is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that include social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to sexual activity and during labour. It is also available in pharmaceutical form. In either form, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions to speed up the process of childbirth. In its natural form, it also plays a role in maternal bonding and milk production. Production and secretion of oxytocin is controlled by a positive feedback mechanism, where its initial release stimulates production and release of further oxytocin. For example, when oxytocin is released during a contraction of the uterus at the start of childbirth, this stimulates production and release of more oxytocin and an increase in the intensity and frequency of contractions. This process compounds in intensity and frequency and continues until the triggering activity ceases. A similar process takes place during lactation and during sexual activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vole</span> Type of small omnivorous rodent

Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars. They are sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in North America.

A mating system is a way in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The precise meaning depends upon the context. With respect to animals, the term describes which males and females mate under which circumstances. Recognised systems include monogamy, polygamy, and promiscuity, all of which lead to different mate choice outcomes and thus these systems affect how sexual selection works in the species which practice them. In plants, the term refers to the degree and circumstances of outcrossing. In human sociobiology, the terms have been extended to encompass the formation of relationships such as marriage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal sexual behaviour</span> Sexual behavior of non-human animals

Animal sexual behaviour takes many different forms, including within the same species. Common mating or reproductively motivated systems include monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, polygamy and promiscuity. Other sexual behaviour may be reproductively motivated or non-reproductively motivated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prairie vole</span> Species of mammal

The prairie vole is a small vole found in central North America.

<i>Tropheus moorii</i> Species of fish

Tropheus moorii is a species of cichlid endemic to Lake Tanganyika in Africa. Over 40 different color morphs of this species are dispersed throughout the lake, ranging from dark green to flame red and yellow. They mostly feed on filamentous algae on the rocky shallows they inhabit. T. moorii is a maternal mouthbrooder, so eggs are fertilized and young are carried in the mouth of the female while they hatch and develop.

Human bonding is the process of development of a close interpersonal relationship between two or more people. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups, such as sporting teams and whenever people spend time together. Bonding is a mutual, interactive process, and is different from simple liking. It is the process of nurturing social connection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vasopressin receptor 1A</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Vasopressin receptor 1A (V1AR), or arginine vasopressin receptor 1A is one of the three major receptor types for vasopressin, and is present throughout the brain, as well as in the periphery in the liver, kidney, and vasculature.

<i>Variabilichromis moorii</i> Species of fish

Variabilichromis moorii has no common name and is a species of freshwater cichlid endemic to Lake Tanganyika in eastern Africa. It is a small ovate bodied fish named for an early collector of fish from the lake, John Edmund Sharrock Moore (1870-1947) who was a cytologist, zoologist and led an expedition to Lake Tanganyika and who discovered this species. Juveniles are usually yellow, and adults are dark brown to black in color. It reaches a total length (TL) of 10.3 centimetres (4.1 in). Currently it is the only member of its genus. V. moorii feeds on algae, zooplankton, and benthic invertebrates. It is also found in the aquarium trade.

Monogamous pairing in animals refers to the natural history of mating systems in which species pair bond to raise offspring. This is associated, usually implicitly, with sexual monogamy.

Extra-pair copulation (EPC) is a mating behaviour in monogamous species. Monogamy is the practice of having only one sexual partner at any one time, forming a long-term bond and combining efforts to raise offspring together; mating outside this pairing is extra-pair copulation. Across the animal kingdom, extra-pair copulation is common in monogamous species, and only a very few pair-bonded species are thought to be exclusively sexually monogamous. EPC in the animal kingdom has mostly been studied in birds and mammals. Possible benefits of EPC can be investigated within non-human species, such as birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">C. Sue Carter</span> American biologist and behavioral neurobiologist

C. Sue Carter is an American biologist and behavioral neurobiologist. She is an internationally recognized expert in behavioral neuroendocrinology. In 2014 she was appointed Director of The Kinsey Institute and Rudy Professor of Biology at Indiana University. Carter was the first person to identify the physiological mechanisms responsible for social monogamy.

The genetics of social behavior is an area of research that attempts to address the question of the role that genes play in modulating the neural circuits in the brain which influence social behavior. Model genetic species, such as D.melanogaster and Apis mellifera, have been rigorously studied and proven to be instrumental in developing the science of genetics. Many examples of genetic factors of social behavior have been derived from a bottom-up method of altering a gene and observing the change it produces in an organism. Sociogenomics is an integrated field that accounts for the complete cellular genetic complement of an organism from a top-down approach, accounting for all biotic influences that effect behavior on a cellular level.

Monogamy is a relationship of two individuals in which they form an exclusive intimate partnership. Having only one partner at any one time, whether that be for life or whether that be serial monogamy, contrasts with various forms of non-monogamy. More generally, the term is used to describe the behavioral ecology and sexual selection of animal mating systems, referring to the state of having only one mate at any one given time. In a human cultural context, monogamy typically refers to the custom of two individuals, regardless of orientation, committing to a sexually exclusive relationship.

The Bruce effect, or pregnancy block, is the tendency for female rodents to terminate their pregnancies following exposure to the scent of an unfamiliar male. The effect was first noted in 1959 by Hilda M. Bruce, and has primarily been studied in laboratory mice. In mice, pregnancy can only be terminated prior to embryo implantation, but other species will interrupt even a late-term pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social monogamy in mammalian species</span> Monogamy in mammals

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyandry in animals</span> Class of mating system in non-human species

In behavioral ecology, polyandry is a class of mating system where one female mates with several males in a breeding season. Polyandry is often compared to the polygyny system based on the cost and benefits incurred by members of each sex. Polygyny is where one male mates with several females in a breeding season . A common example of polyandrous mating can be found in the field cricket of the invertebrate order Orthoptera. Polyandrous behavior is also prominent in many other insect species, including the red flour beetle and the species of spider Stegodyphus lineatus. Polyandry also occurs in some primates such as marmosets, mammal groups, the marsupial genus' Antechinus and bandicoots, around 1% of all bird species, such as jacanas and dunnocks, insects such as honeybees, and fish such as pipefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Larry J. Young</span>

Larry J. Young is the William P. Timmie Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the School of Medicine at Emory University. He heads the Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders at Yerkes National Primate Center.

References

  1. ↑ "Pair-bond". Home : Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford English Dictionary. 2005.
  2. 1 2 Barash D, Lipton J (2001). The Myth of Monogamy: Fidelity and Infidelity in Animals and People. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN   978-0805071368.
  3. ↑ Overdorff DJ, Tecot SR (2006). "Social Pair-Bonding and Resource Defense in Wild Red-Bellied Lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer)". Lemurs. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospect. pp. 235–254. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-34586-4_11. ISBN   978-0-387-34585-7.
  4. 1 2 3 Fuentes A (9 May 2012). "On Marriage and Pair Bonds". Psychology Today. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  5. ↑ Garcia C (May 2019). The Role of Oxytocin on Social Behavior Associated with the Formation of a Social Pair-Bond in the Socially Monogamous Convict Cichlid (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) (PhD thesis). Winthrop University.
  6. ↑ Bode A, Kushnick G (2021). "Proximate and Ultimate Perspectives on Romantic Love". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 573123. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573123 . PMC   8074860 . PMID   33912094.
  7. 1 2 Young LJ (2003). "The Neural Basis of Pair Bonding in a Monogamous Species: A Model for Understanding the Biological Basis of Human Behavior". In Wachter KW, Bulatao RA (eds.). Offspring: Human Fertility Behavior in Biodemographic Perspective. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-08718-6. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2018– via www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
  8. ↑ Berger M (10 February 2012). "Till Death do them Part: 8 Birds that Mate for Life". National Audubon Society. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  9. ↑ Wakano JY, Ihara Y (August 2005). "Evolution of male parental care and female multiple mating: game-theoretical and two-locus diploid models". The American Naturalist. 166 (2): E32–44. doi:10.1086/431252. PMID   16032569. S2CID   23771617.; Lay summary in: "New Study Explores The Evolution Of Male Parental Care And Female Multiple Mating". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05.
  10. ↑ Parra, Jorge E.; Beltrán, Marcela; Zefania, Sama; Dos Remedios, Natalie; Székely, Tamás (2014-04-01). "Experimental assessment of mating opportunities in three shorebird species" (PDF). Animal Behaviour. 90: 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.030. ISSN   0003-3472. S2CID   15727544.
  11. ↑ Pampoulie C, Lindström K, St Mary CM (March 2004). "Have your cake and eat it too: male sand gobies show more parental care in the presence of female partners". Behavioral Ecology. 15 (2): 199–204. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arg107 .; Lay summary in: "For A Male Sand Goby, Playing 'Mr. Mom' Is Key To Female's Heart". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
  12. ↑ Steinwender B, Koblmüller S, Sefc KM (February 2012). "Concordant female mate preferences in the cichlid fish Tropheus moorii". Hydrobiologia. 682 (1): 121–130. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0766-5. PMC   3841713 . PMID   24293682.
  13. ↑ Takahashi T, Ochi H, Kohda M, Hori M (June 2012). "Invisible pair bonds detected by molecular analyses". Biology Letters. 8 (3): 355–357. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.1006. PMC   3367736 . PMID   22114323.
  14. ↑ Couch AJ, Dyer F, Lintermans M (2020). "Multi-year pair-bonding in Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii)". PeerJ. 8: e10460. doi: 10.7717/peerj.10460 . PMC   7733648 . PMID   33354425.
  15. ↑ Bales KL, Ardekani CS, Baxter A, Karaskiewicz CL, Kuske JX, Lau AR, et al. (November 2021). "What is a pair bond?". Hormones and Behavior. 136: 105062. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105062 . PMID   34601430. S2CID   238234968.
  16. ↑ Nowicki JP, Walker SP, Coker DJ, Hoey AS, Nicolet KJ, Pratchett MS (April 2018). "Pair bond endurance promotes cooperative food defense and inhibits conflict in coral reef butterflyfish". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 6295. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.6295N. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-24412-0. PMC   5908845 . PMID   29674741.
  17. ↑ Lim MM, Wang Z, Olazábal DE, Ren X, Terwilliger EF, Young LJ (June 2004). "Enhanced partner preference in a promiscuous species by manipulating the expression of a single gene". Nature. 429 (6993): 754–757. Bibcode:2004Natur.429..754L. doi:10.1038/nature02539. PMID   15201909. S2CID   4340500.

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