Cultural genocide

Last updated

Looting of Polish artwork at the Zacheta building by German forces during the Occupation of Poland, 1944 Warsaw 1944 by Baluk - 26320.jpg
Looting of Polish artwork at the Zachęta building by German forces during the Occupation of Poland, 1944

Cultural genocide or culturicide is a concept described by Polish lawyer Raphael Lemkin in 1944, in the same book that coined the term genocide . [1] The destruction of culture was a central component in Lemkin's formulation of genocide. [1] Though the precise definition of cultural genocide remains contested, the United Nations makes it clear that genocide is "the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group... it does not include political groups or so called 'cultural genocide'" and that "Cultural destruction does not suffice, nor does an intention to simply disperse a group" thus this is what "makes the crime of genocide so unique". [2] While the Armenian Genocide Museum defines culturicide as "acts and measures undertaken to destroy nations' or ethnic groups' culture through spiritual, national, and cultural destruction", [3] which appears to be essentially the same as ethnocide. Some ethnologists, such as Robert Jaulin, use the term ethnocide as a substitute for cultural genocide, [4] although this usage has been criticized as risking the confusion between ethnicity and culture. [5] Cultural genocide and ethnocide have in the past been utilized in distinct contexts. [6] Cultural genocide without ethnocide is conceivable when a distinct ethnic identity is kept, but distinct cultural elements are eliminated. [7]

Contents

Culturicide involves the eradication and destruction of cultural artifacts, such as books, artworks, and structures. [8] The issue is addressed in multiple international treaties, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute, which define war crimes associated with the destruction of culture. Cultural genocide may also involve forced assimilation, as well as the suppression of a language or cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate. [8] Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., iconoclasm which is based on aniconism); as part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing in an attempt to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement a Year Zero, in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset". The drafters of the 1948 Genocide Convention initially considered using the term, but later dropped it from inclusion. [9] [10] [11] The term "cultural genocide" has been considered in various draft United Nations declarations, but it is not used by the UN Genocide Convention. [4]

History

Etymology

The notion of 'cultural genocide' was acknowledged as early as 1944, when lawyer Raphael Lemkin distinguished a cultural component of genocide. [12] In 1989, Robert Badinter, a French criminal lawyer known for his stance against the death penalty, used the term "cultural genocide" on a television show to describe what he said was the disappearance of Tibetan culture in the presence of the 14th Dalai Lama. [13] The Dalai Lama would later use the term in 1993 [14] and again in 2008. [15]

Proposed inclusion in the UN's DRIP

The concept of cultural genocide was originally included in drafts of the 1948 Genocide Convention [9] [10] [11] but was later dropped due to vetoing by France and Great Britain. [16]

Article 7 of a 1994 draft of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (DRIP) uses the phrase "cultural genocide" but does not define what it means. [17] The complete article in the draft read as follows:

Indigenous peoples have the collective and individual right not to be subjected to ethnocide and cultural genocide, including prevention of and redress for:
(a) Any action which has the aim or effect of depriving them of their integrity as distinct peoples, or of their cultural values or ethnic identities;
(b) Any action which has the aim or effect of dispossessing them of their lands, territories or resources;
(c) Any form of population transfer which has the aim or effect of violating or undermining any of their rights;
(d) Any form of assimilation or integration by other cultures or ways of life imposed on them by legislative, administrative or other measures;
(e) Any form of propaganda directed against them.

This wording only ever appeared in a draft. The DRIP—which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 62nd session at UN Headquarters in New York City on 13 September 2007—only makes reference to genocide once, when it mentions "genocide, or any other act of violence" in Article 7. Though the concept of "ethnocide" and "cultural genocide" was removed in the version adopted by the General Assembly, the sub-points from the draft noted above were retained (with slightly expanded wording) in Article 8 that speaks to "the right not to be subject to forced assimilation." [18]

List of cultural genocides

The term has been used to describe the destruction of cultural heritage in connection with various events which mostly occurred during the 20th century:

Europe

When at the mid-19th century, primary school is made compulsory all across the State, it is also made clear that only French will be taught, and the teachers will severely punish any pupil speaking in patois. The aim of the French educational system will consequently not be to dignify the pupils' natural humanity, developing their culture and teaching them to write their language, but rather to humiliate them and morally degrade them for the simple fact of being what tradition and their nature made them. The self-proclaimed country of the "human rights" will then ignore one of man's most fundamental rights, the right to be himself and speak the language of his nation. And with that attitude France, the "grande France" that calls itself the champion of liberty, will pass the 20th century, indifferent to the timid protest movements of the various linguistic communities it submitted and the literary prestige they may have given birth to.

[...]

France, that under Franco's reign was seen here [in Catalonia] as the safe haven of freedom, has the miserable honour of being the [only] State of Europe—and probably the world – that succeeded best in the diabolical task of destroying its own ethnic and linguistic patrimony and moreover, of destroying human family bonds: many parents and children, or grandparents and grandchildren, have different languages, and the latter feel ashamed of the first because they speak a despicable patois, and no element of the grandparents' culture has been transmitted to the younger generation, as if they were born out of a completely new world. This is the French State that has just entered the 21st century, a country where stone monuments and natural landscapes are preserved and respected, but where many centuries of popular creation expressed in different tongues are on the brink of extinction. The "gloire" and the "grandeur" built on a genocide. No liberty, no equality, no fraternity: just cultural extermination, this is the real motto of the French Republic.

Asia

Oceania

North America

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genocide</span> Intentional destruction of a people

Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caucasus</span> Region spanning Europe and Asia

The Caucasus or Caucasia, is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have conventionally been considered as a natural barrier between Europe and Asia, bisecting the Eurasian landmass.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic cleansing</span> Systematic removal of a certain ethnic or religious group

Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, or religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal such as deportation or population transfer, it also includes indirect methods aimed at forced migration by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction. Both the definition and charge of ethnic cleansing is often disputed, with some researchers including and others excluding coercive assimilation or mass killings as a means of depopulating an area of a particular group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pan-Turkism</span> Political movement advocating the unity of Turkic peoples

Pan-Turkism or Turkism is a political movement that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals who lived in the Russian region of Kazan (Tatarstan), South Caucasus and the Ottoman Empire, with its aim being the cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples. Turanism is a closely related movement but it is a more general term, because Turkism only applies to Turkic peoples. However, researchers and politicians who are steeped in the pan-Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources and works of literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forced assimilation</span> Involuntary cultural assimilation of minority groups

Forced assimilation is the involuntary cultural assimilation of religious or ethnic minority groups, during which they are forced by a government to adopt the language, national identity, norms, mores, customs, traditions, values, mentality, perceptions, way of life, and often the religion and ideology of an established and generally larger community belonging to a dominant culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnocide</span> Extermination of a culture

Ethnocide is the extermination or destruction of ethnic identities. Bartolomé Clavero differentiates ethnocide from genocide by stating that "Genocide kills people while ethnocide kills social cultures through the killing of individual souls". According to Martin Shaw, ethnocide is a core part of physically violent genocide. Some substitute cultural genocide for ethnocide, and other argue the distinction between ethnicity and culture. Cultural genocide and ethnocide have been used in different contexts. While the term "ethnocide" and "ethnic cleansing" are similar, the intentions of their use vary. The term "ethnic cleansing" has been criticized as a euphemism for genocide denial, while "ethnocide" tries to facilitate the opposite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic groups in the Caucasus</span> Diverse group comprising more than 50 ethnic groups

The peoples of the Caucasus, or Caucasians, are a diverse group comprising more than 50 ethnic groups throughout the Caucasus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greek genocide</span> 1913–1922 genocide of Greek Christians in the Ottoman Empire

The Greek genocide, which included the Pontic genocide, was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia, which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) – including the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) – on the basis of their religion and ethnicity. It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert, expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments. Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period. Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece. Some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Armenian sentiment</span> Strong aversion and prejudice against Armenians

Anti-Armenian sentiment, also known as anti-Armenianism and Armenophobia, is a diverse spectrum of negative feelings, dislikes, fears, aversion, racism, derision and/or prejudice towards Armenians, Armenia, and Armenian culture.

White genocide is a descriptive term that is used in the Armenian diaspora, for the threat of assimilation, especially in the Western world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Armenian cemetery in Julfa</span> Former Armenian cemetery in Julfa, Azerbaijan

The Armenian cemetery in Julfa was a cemetery near the town of Julfa, in the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan that originally housed around 10,000 funerary monuments. The tombstones consisted mainly of thousands of khachkars—uniquely decorated cross-stones characteristic of medieval Christian Armenian art. The cemetery was still standing in the late 1990s, when the government of Azerbaijan began a systemic campaign to destroy the monuments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic minorities in Azerbaijan</span>

This article focuses on ethnic minorities in the Republic of Azerbaijan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azerbaijani nationalism</span>

Azerbaijani nationalism, also referred to as Azerbaijanism originated as a result of the Pan-Turkist agenda expressed during the October Revolution and historiography under the Soviet Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Armenians in Nakhchivan</span> Ethnic group in Azerbaijan

Armenians had a historic presence in Nakhchivan. According to an Armenian tradition, Nakhchivan was founded by Noah, of the Abrahamic religions. During the Soviet era, Nakhchivan saw a significant demographic shift. The Armenian population saw a great reduction in their numbers throughout the years repatriating to Armenia. Nakhchivan's Armenian population gradually decreased to around 0%. Still some Armenian political groupings of Armenia and the Armenian diaspora, claim that Nakhchivan should belong to Armenia. The Medieval Armenian cemetery of Jugha (Julfa) in Nakhchivan, regarded by Armenians as the biggest and most precious repository of medieval headstones marked with Christian crosses – khachkars, was completely demolished by 2006.

Anti-Armenian sentiment or Armenophobia is widespread in Azerbaijan, mainly due to the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. According to the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), Armenians are "the most vulnerable group in Azerbaijan in the field of racism and racial discrimination." A 2012 opinion poll found that 91% of Azerbaijanis perceive Armenia as "the biggest enemy of Azerbaijan." The word "Armenian" (erməni) is widely used as an insult in Azerbaijan. Stereotypical opinions circulating in the mass media have their deep roots in the public consciousness.

Soviet leaders and authorities officially condemned nationalism and proclaimed internationalism, including the right of nations and peoples to self-determination. Soviet internationalism during the era of the USSR and within its borders meant diversity or multiculturalism. This is because the USSR used the term "nation" to refer to ethnic or national communities and or ethnic groups. The Soviet Union claimed to be supportive of self-determination and rights of many minorities and colonized peoples. However, it significantly marginalized people of certain ethnic groups designated as "enemies of the people", pushed their assimilation, and promoted chauvinistic Russian nationalistic and settler-colonialist activities in their lands. Whereas Vladimir Lenin had supported and implemented policies of korenizatsiia, Joseph Stalin reversed much of the previous policies, signing off on orders to deport and exile multiple ethnic-linguistic groups brandished as "traitors to the Fatherland", including the Balkars, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, Kalmyks, Koreans and Meskhetian Turks, with those, who survived the collective deportation to Siberia or Central Asia, were legally designated "special settlers", meaning that they were officially second-class citizens with few rights and were confined within small perimeters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2020 Ghazanchetsots Cathedral shelling</span>

The 2020 shelling of Ghazanchetsots Cathedral took place prior to the Battle of Shusha on 8 October, when the Holy Savior Cathedral of the city of Shusha, known as Ghazanchetsots Cathedral, was struck twice by missiles, resulting in the collapse of a part of the roof. Armenia accused the Azerbaijani Armed Forces over the shelling.

Armenian cultural heritage in Azerbaijan refers to historic buildings and cultural traditions of Armenians who lived in what today conforms the territory of Azerbaijan. Armenians had a historic presence in Azerbaijan going back to at least the 2nd century BC in Nakhchivan, which was part of the new Kingdom of Armenia established by Artaxias I Armenians also had presence in Baku dating back to the 7th century AD. Prior to calls for independence from Azerbaijan by Armenians of Nagorno Karabakh in what is now called the Republic of Artsakh, and the ensuing First Nagorno-Karabakh War, about 500,000 Armenians lived in Soviet Azerbaijan where they had an active cultural presence. Most Armenians have fled during the war and their numbers in Azerbaijan today is less than 1% of their pre-war figures. After the ceasefire of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, there has been a marked increase of Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan coupled with reports about destruction of Armenian cultural monuments there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians</span> 2023 exodus from Nagorno-Karabakh

On 19–20 September 2023 Azerbaijan initiated a military offensive in the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region which ended with the surrender of the self-declared Republic of Artsakh and the disbandment of its armed forces. Up until the military assault, the region was internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan but governed and populated by ethnic Armenians.

References

  1. 1 2 Bilsky, Leora; Klagsbrun, Rachel (23 July 2018). "The Return of Cultural Genocide?". European Journal of International Law . 29 (2): 373–396. doi: 10.1093/ejil/chy025 . ISSN   0938-5428 . Retrieved 2 May 2020.
  2. United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. "The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)" (PDF). United Nations . Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2021.
  3. 1 2 "Cultural genocide". The Armenian genocide Museum-institute. Archived from the original on 22 August 2024. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
  4. 1 2 Jaulin, Robert (1970). La paix blanche: introduction à l'ethnocide[White Peace: An Introduction to Ethnocide] (in French). Éditions du Seuil.
  5. Delanty, Gerard; Kumar, Krishan (29 June 2006). The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. SAGE Publications. p. 326. ISBN   978-1-4129-0101-7 . Retrieved 28 February 2013. The term 'ethnocide' has in the past been used as a replacement for cultural genocide (Palmer 1992; Smith 1991:30-3), with the obvious risk of confusing ethnicity and culture.
  6. Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (15 April 2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN   978-0-19-161361-6. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
  7. Hall, Thomas D.; Fenelon, James V. (2004). "The futures of indigenous peoples: 9-11 and the trajectory of indigenous survival and resistance". Journal of World-systems Research: 153–197. doi:10.5195/jwsr.2004.307.
  8. 1 2 "Cultural Genocide, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools". Facing History and Ourselves. 16 October 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  9. 1 2 Abtahi, Hirad; Webb, Philippa (2008). The Genocide Convention. BRILL. p. 731. ISBN   978-90-04-17399-6 . Retrieved 22 February 2013.
  10. 1 2 Davidson, Lawrence (8 March 2012). Cultural Genocide. Rutgers University Press. ISBN   978-0-8135-5344-3 . Retrieved 22 February 2013.
  11. 1 2 See Prosecutor v. Krstic, Case No. IT-98-33-T (Int'l Crim. Trib. Yugo. Trial Chamber 2001), at para. 576.
  12. Raphael Lemkin, Acts Constituting a General (Transnational) Danger Considered as Offences Against the Law of Nations (J. Fussell trans., 2000) (1933); Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, p. 91 (1944).
  13. Institut National de l'Audiovisuel (21 April 1989). Les droits de l'homme [Human rights]. Apostrophes (Videotape) (in French). Ina.fr. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  14. "10th March Statements Archive" . Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  15. "'Eighty killed' in Tibetan unrest". BBC News . 16 March 2008.
  16. Flores, Marcello (5 December 2023). "Introduction". Monuments and Identities in the Caucasus. Brill. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1163/9789004677388_002. ISBN   978-90-04-67738-8 . Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  17. Draft United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples drafted by The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Recalling resolutions 1985/22 of 29 August 1985, 1991/30 of 29 August 1991, 1992/33 of 27 August 1992, 1993/46 of 26 August 1993, presented to the Commission on Human Rights and the Economic and Social Council at 36th meeting 26 August 1994 and adopted without a vote.
  18. "United Nations Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). United Nations. 13 September 2007. p. 10. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
  19. 1 2 The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions Stephen G. Wheatcroft
  20. Viola, Lynne (2014). "Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities". The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements. Central European University Press. pp. 49–69. ISBN   978-963-386-048-9.
  21. "The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche". SciencesPo (in French). 29 April 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  22. WAOP (14 April 2023). "Deportation of Chechens and Ingush in 1944". WAOP?. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  23. Sultanov, Akhmed; Yelkhoyev, Lecha; Bigg, Claire (22 February 2014). "'There Was No Water, No Food' -- Chechens Remember Horror Of 1944 Deportations". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  24. Schabas, William (2000). Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes. Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN   0-521-78790-4.
  25. 1 2 CGS 1st Workshop: "Cultural Genocide" and the Japanese Occupation of Korea (archive) "During Germany's occupation of Poland (1939–1945) and Japan's occupation of Korea (1910–1945), the prohibition of use of the native tongue, the renaming of people and places, the removal of indigenous people from institutions of higher education, the destruction of cultural facilities, the denial of freedom of religious faith, and the changing of cultural education all took place. The instances of German cultural genocide, which Lemkin took as his basis, cannot be ignored when conducting comparative research." "One of the most striking features of Japan's occupation of Korea is the absence of an awareness of Korea as a "colony", and the absence of an awareness of Koreans as a "separate ethnicity". As a result, it is difficult to prove whether or not the leaders of Japan aimed for the eradication of the Korean race."
  26. "Burned library symbolizes multiethnic Sarajevo". Deutsche Welle . 25 August 2012.
  27. J̌овић, Саво Б. (2007). Етничко чишћење и културни геноцид на Косову и Метохији: Сведочанства о страдању Српске православне цркве и српског народа од 1945. до 2005. год (in Serbian). Информативно-издавачка установа Српске православне цркве. ISBN   978-86-7758-016-2.
  28. "Appeal from the extraordinary session of the Expanded Convocation of the Holy Synod of Serbian Orthodox Church". Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
  29. ERP KiM Info (26 April 2004). "Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja" [Completed and corrected list of destroyed and damaged Orthodox churches and monasteries in Kosovo during the March violence]. B92 Specijal (in Bosnian). B92.
  30. "Denying Ethnic Identity". Human Rights Watch . 1 May 1994. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  31. "Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs". BBC News . 24 February 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  32. Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities in Greece And Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey, Berghahn Books, 2003, p. 120
  33. Limpitsioúni, Anthí G. To plégma ton ellinotourkikón schéseon kai i ellinikí meionótita stin Tourkía, oi Éllines tis Konstantinoúpolis tis Ímvrou kai tis TenédouΤο πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου[The nexus of Greek-Turkish relations and the Greek minority in Turkey, the Greeks of Constantinople, Imbros and Tenedos] (in Greek). Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης. pp. 98–99.
  34. Eade, John; Katic, Mario (28 June 2014). Ashgate Studies in Pilgrimage. Ashgate Publishing. p. 38. ISBN   978-1-4724-1592-9.
  35. Benet, Josep (1978). Catalunya sota el règim franquista[Catalonia under the Franco regime] (in Catalan) (1. reedició ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN   84-7031-064-X. OCLC   4777662.
  36. Hargreaves, John E. (2000). Freedom for Catalonia?: Catalan nationalism, Spanish identity, and the Barcelona Olympic Games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-58615-3. OCLC   51028883.
  37. Benet, Josep (1979). Cataluña bajo el régimen franquista[Catalonia under the Franco regime] (in Catalan) (1. ed.). Barcelona: Blume. ISBN   84-7031-144-1. OCLC   7188603.
  38. "Història de l'edició a Catalunya" [History of publishing in Catalonia] (in Catalan). 27 September 2017.
  39. Vatmanidis, Theo (8 October 2017). "Catalonia crisis in Eurovision – how Spain blocked Catalan from victory". EuroVisionary. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  40. 1 2 3 Bowen, Efa (19 July 2020). ""Cofiwch Dryweryn": A Welsh History of Oppression". Cherwell. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  41. Henley Davis, Richard (6 June 2014). "The Ghettoisation of the Welsh". The Economic Voice. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  42. Williams, Colin (15 November 2022). "Second homes are hollowing out Welsh communities – and pushing our language into decline". The Guardian . ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  43. "Education, the decline of Welsh and why communities matter more than classrooms". Nation.Cymru. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  44. "Cultural genocide: The Broken Harp, Identity and Language in Modern Ireland, by Tomás Mac Síomóin". The Irish Times .
  45. "The Guardian view on... cultural genocide". openDemocracy .
  46. Jeggit (20 February 2018). "Bad Language: Gaelic and Britain's Cultural Genocide". Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
  47. Murray, Christopher (6 June 2019). Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up to Nation. Syracuse University Press. ISBN   978-0-8156-0643-7 via Google Books.
  48. Carey, Hilary M. (1 July 1996). Believing in Australia: A cultural history of religions. Allen & Unwin. ISBN   978-1-74269-657-7 via Google Books.
  49. Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert; Jacobs, Steven L. (6 June 2019). Dictionary of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-0-313-34642-2 via Google Books.
  50. Corbera, Jaume (23 September 2001). "Le patois des vieux". Diari de Balears. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  51. "Шмигаль: Понад 20 тисяч пам'яток культури перебуває під російською окупацією". www.ukrinform.ua (in Ukrainian). 29 February 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  52. "Cultural Genocide Against Ukraine: How is Russia Looting Ukrainian Museums?". ukraineworld.org. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  53. ""United for Justice. United for Heritage": Preserving Ukrainian Cultural Identity — EUAM Ukraine". 5 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  54. Ghanea-Hercock, Nazila (1997). "Review of secondary literature in English on recent persecutions of Bahá'ís in Iran". Baháʼí Studies Review. 7. Association for Baha'i Studies English-Speaking Europe. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
  55. Saiedi, Nader (1 May 2008). Gate of the Heart: Understanding the Writings of the Báb. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 377. ISBN   978-1-55458-035-4 . Retrieved 3 March 2013.
  56. Frelick, Bill (Fall 1987). "Iranian Baha'is and Genocide Early Warning". Social Science Record. 24 (2): 35–37. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
  57. Petrosyan 2010 – Petrosyan H., Cultural ethnocide in Artsakh (mechanism of extortion of cultural heritage), state terrorism of Azerbaijan and the policy of ethnic cleansing against Nagorno Karabakh, Shushi, pp. 137-148 (in Arm.). Petrosyan 2020 – Ethnocide in Artsakh: The Mechanisms of Azerbaijan’s Usurpation of Indigenous Armenian Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage. Experiences & Perspectives in International Context, Proceedings of the ROCHEMP center international conference, 23rd- 24th of January 2020, Yerevan, pp. 79-90.
  58. Roberts, Kasey (6 June 2022). "Present-Day Ethnocide: The Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage in Azerbaijan". MUNDI. 2 (1).
  59. Kellogg, Ethan. "Cultural Erasure in the Modern Day: The Destruction of Armenian Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan." The Cornell Diplomat 9 (2023). This wide-spread destruction has taken place since at least the late 1990s, primarily in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan, eliminating millennia of artifacts and altering the ethnic and cultural makeup of the region in a manner that may constitute cultural genocide.
  60. Der Matossian, Bedross (1 August 2023). "Impunity, Lack of Humanitarian Intervention, and International Apathy: The Blockade of the Lachin Corridor in Historical Perspective". Genocide Studies International . 15 (1): 7–20. doi:10.3138/GSI-2023-0008. ISSN   2291-1847. There is no doubt that a cultural genocide is taking place in Artsakh where the vandalism or destruction of Armenian monuments has become the norm.
  61. Falcone, Daniel (6 January 2024). "Armenians Suffering in Nagorno-Karabakh Are Going Largely Ignored in US Media". Truthout . Retrieved 20 February 2024. In this under-reported case of cultural genocide involving political persecution, strains on due process rights, torture, lack of healthcare and food supplies, tens of thousands of ethnic Armenians have fled from Nagorno-Karabakh region after surrendering to Azerbaijan on September 20.
  62. "Texts adopted - Destruction of cultural heritage in Nagorno-Karabakh - Thursday, 10 March 2022". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 29 January 2024. The European Parliament...calls on Azerbaijan to fully implement the provisional decision of the ICJ, in particular by 'refraining from suppressing the Armenian language, destroying Armenian cultural heritage or otherwise eliminating the existence of the historical Armenian cultural presence or inhibiting Armenians' access and enjoyment thereof' and by 'restoring or returning any Armenian cultural and religious buildings and sites, artefacts or objects';
  63. Maghakyan, Simon (November 2007). "Sacred Stones Silenced in Azerbaijan". History Today . Vol. 57, no. 11.
  64. Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group, "The Destruction of Jugha", Bern, 2006.
  65. Womack, Catherine (7 November 2019). "Historic Armenian monuments were obliterated. Some call it 'cultural genocide'". LA Times .
  66. "The Cultural Genocide Against Armenians". TIME . 12 October 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2024. This is how cultural genocide plays out. A little more than 100 years ago was the Armenian Genocide waged by the Ottoman Empire, followed by largescale looting, vandalization, and destruction of Armenian sites across what is now modern-day Turkey. The prospect of a second cultural genocide is now on the table. Except now, Armenians will watch the spectacle unfold online, enduring the trauma site by site and monument by monument.
  67. Sandhar, Jaspreet (2005). "Cultural Genocide in Tibet: The Failure of Article 8 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Protecting the Cultural Rights of Tibetans". Santander Art and Cultural Law Review. 2 (1): 175–198. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
  68. MacFarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2006). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02332-1.
  69. "Cultural Genocide Funds ISIS Art-for-Weapons Trade". Charged Affairs. 7 March 2017.[ permanent dead link ]
  70. Cronin-Furman, Kate (19 September 2018). "China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now". Foreign Policy . Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  71. Kuo, Lily (7 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang". The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  72. Wilkie, Meredith (April 1997). "Bringing them Home: report of the national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families – Chapter 13". Australian Human Rights Commission . Retrieved 29 April 2021. The Australian practice of Indigenous child removal involved both systematic racial discrimination and genocide as defined by international law
  73. Barrera, Jorge (25 April 2007). "'Genocide' target of fed coverup: MP". Toronto Sun . Archived from the original on 3 May 2015.
  74. "Canada's Forced Schooling of Aboriginal Children Was 'Cultural Genocide,' Report Finds". The New York Times . 2 June 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
  75. Fine, Sean (28 May 2015). "Chief Justice says Canada attempted 'cultural genocide' on aboriginals". The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 30 December 2018.

Further reading