Discrimination against transgender men

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Discrimination against transgender men and transmasculine individuals is sometimes referred to as transandrophobia, [1] [2] anti-transmasculinity, or transmisandry. [3] [4]

Contents

Development of concept

There is no consensus on a term for the discrimination against transgender men. However, many terms have been coined online to refer to discrimination against transgender men.

The proposed term transmisandry combines the prefix 'trans-' with 'misandry' in a similar fashion to the etymology of transmisogyny, which is derived from 'trans-' and 'misogyny'. The term transandrophobia is also used, which uses the suffix 'androphobia'.

The complexity of this prejudice and the need for a term for this type of transphobia has previously been addressed by transgender author Julia Serano, who coined the term transmisogyny. [4] In 2021 she clarified the usage of the term and identified a gap in the language for a word for discrimination against transgender men.

"Transmisogyny can be a vital term for some of us to communicate the intersection of transphobia and misogyny that we face. But others may experience it more complicatedly or severely, as in the case of transmisogynoir. And for others (e.g., certain non-binary people, trans male/masculine-spectrum people), misogyny may intersect with transphobia in different ways that aren't adequately articulated by transmisogyny. This doesn't necessarily make transmisogyny "wrong"; it may simply mean that we need additional language." [5]

Instances

Lack of visibility

Transgender men historically did not enjoy much visibility due to lack of awareness that female-to-male transition existed. Many people were only aware of male-to-female transition as a result of the hypervisibility of transgender women in the mid-20th Century. Susan Stryker has written that an organisation called Labyrinth was founded in 1968 in order to fill the gap in support for transgender men, since until that time most trans organisations focused on transgender women. Stryker writes that most of the other organisations at the time were more "geared more towards the needs of transgender women than transgender men". [6]

Transphobia

Transgender men face discrimination in certain medical contexts. This may include difficulty in accessing cervical smears [7] where transmasculine individuals are subjected to misgendering that cisgender women do not generally experience, due to transgender men having gender identities that are incongruent with the gendered medical care they require. Alongside misgendering, transgender men may experience transphobia as a result of not being read as men in a medical setting. The pap smear test is more likely to be inadequate in detecting cervical cancer in transgender men who use masculinizing hormone therapy. [8]

Issues of bodily autonomy also affect transgender men. Transgender men who retain their uteruses may be able to become pregnant, but may also face additional barriers to abortion services. In 2018, proposed legislation to legalise abortion in Ireland only permitted women to have abortions. Campaign groups highlighted the situation for transgender men, saying that "the proposed legislation for termination of pregnancy in Ireland will only allow women to access abortion" and "thus, trans men in Ireland will be denied abortion access". [9]

Transgender men and transmasculine people are at a high risk for sexual assault, sexual violence and rape. The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey found that 51% of trans men reported being sexually assaulted at least once in their lives [10] compared to only 21.3% of cisgender women. [11] One non-profit study [12] undertaken in 2011 found that, of the 1,005 trans people involved in the study, 50% of Female to Male (FTM) respondents reported experiencing childhood sexual assault. A further 31% reported sexual assault as an adult, 23% listed violence in dating, 36% had experienced domestic violence, 18% had experienced stalking and 29% had experienced hate violence. Despite transgender men and transmasculine people's high rates of sexual assault, many rape and sexual assault crisis centres are not open to men, cis or trans, leading to transmasculine people being put at risk of not having any resources after a sexually-motivated crime. The ARC Readiness Assessment in 2023 found that only 29% of providers surveyed knew of safe sexual assault recovery/family violence services to refer trans men to compared to 37% knowing safe sources for trans women and 44% knowing safe sources for non-binary people. [13]

Counting Ourselves also found that only 11% of trans participants had been able to receive support after sexual violence and abuse and that 33% of transgender men had to explain the concept of transgender men to healthcare professionals when seeking support, compared to 14% of trans women having to do the same. The study also found that 50% of transgender men experienced someone attempting to rape them or succeeding in raping them.

Transphobic attitudes towards trans people assigned female at birth may also imply transgender men and non-binary people are unable to know what is best for them due to their sex, in a similar fashion to what is sometimes experienced by cisgender women. [14] Transgender men may face additional challenges when dealing with transphobia due to their transmasculinity. Trans men may face barriers in reporting hate crimes motivated by transphobia while presenting as male. Brandon Teena, a trans man murdered in 1993, did not succeed in accessing a rape kit following his rape until he returned to the police station presenting as a woman. [15]

Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria is sometimes used to explain away the existence of trans adolescents. Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria claims, unevidenced, that trans adolescents assigned female at birth are more susceptible to being influenced by their peers into identifying as transgender than other adolescents. Denial of bodily agency in transgender youth and adults is a form of infantilization. [16]

Racism

Trans men and transmasculine people of colour face a unique discrimination as a result of their race, gender and transgender status intersecting. [17] An interviewee for the project To Survive on this Shore [18] discusses racism against trans men:

"In the beginning, when I started transitioning, when my features started changing, when it got to the point where I was totally male, I wondered why people were treating me differently. Other races were treating me differently. And I realized, I'm a black male now, and so when I step on the elevator, the woman's going to clutch her pocketbook, or she's going to move to the other side of the elevator, or I get doors slammed in my face." - Charley, 2014

Citing Krell, Martino and Omercajic explain that "'racialized transmisandry' helps to explain the policing around Black masculinity for Black transmasculine persons [who] have been effaced in a white-centric and classed framing of cisgenderism and cissexism". [3]

Gender essentialism and feminism

According to Mimi Marinucci, gender essentialism and sex essentialism are radical feminist views on gender, and are foundational to trans exclusionary radical feminism. [19] She states that, while their bigotry towards transgender women is more visible, transgender men are also routinely targeted by trans exclusionary radical feminists. She argues that gender essentialism in radical feminism demonises masculinity and maleness as a whole, targeting trans women for their assigned sex at birth and targeting trans men for their transition into manhood. Masculinising procedures are sometimes called 'mutilating surgery' by radical feminists. [19]

The intersection between discrimination against transgender men and misogyny has split feminist opinion on the place of transgender men within feminism, particularly types of feminism that are concerned with reproductive rights and domestic abuse. Many feminist organisations are welcoming and affirming of transgender men. [20] However, a number of trans exclusive radical feminist organisations do not welcome transgender men on the basis of their manhood. Trans exclusive radical feminist organisations which do welcome transgender men do not see transgender men as men. Other feminist organisations have adopted trans inclusive radical feminism, which includes trans women and some non-binary people, but may often exclude transgender men on the basis of their manhood due to the gender essentialism still present in radical feminist theory. [21] Trans exclusionary radical feminists and those sympathetic to the movement have espoused the debunked Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria theory, with figures such as Abigail Shrier and JK Rowling being among the most vocal figures to promote it, despite a lack of evidence backing up the theory.

Trans men and transmasculine people are frequently the subjects of medical marginalisation, with 42% of trans men reporting negative experiences with healthcare providers. [10] Transgender men frequently face medical marginalisation because they are simultaneously transgender and assigned female at birth. There is a lack of credible research about how to provide adequate healthcare to transgender men undergoing medical transition, notably with doctors having difficulty diagnosing breast cancer in people who have undergone top surgery. [22] Transmasculine people are also at an increased risk for experiencing discrimination in medicine that may impact their access to healthcare. [23] This can include transmasculine people with cervixes not being invited for life-saving cervical screenings [24] [25] because their gender is legally listed as male or being denied screenings for ovarian cancer for the same reason. [26]

Trans men are sometimes omitted from discussions about reproductive rights, menstruation, and bodily autonomy because they are seen exclusively as "women's issues". This includes healthcare professionals neglecting to discuss contraception to prevent unwanted transgender pregnancy. [27]

Trans men and transmasculine people are at a greater risk of developing HIV or AIDS. [28] Between 2009 and 2014, trans men accounted for 11% of HIV-positive transgender individuals in the U.S. with 60% of them being virally suppressed for at least one year. [29] This study conducted by the American Public Health Association states that "transgender men who have sex with men are at increased risk for HIV acquisition and [. . .] constitute 15.4% of the newly diagnosed HIV cases among transgender persons. Transgender men are an understudied population lacking evidence-based HIV interventions to address their needs. [29] " The majority of PrEP medications such as Descovy that are meant to prevent contraction of HIV have not been tested for people who were assigned female at birth. [30] 47% of HIV-positive trans men in the U.S. between 2009 and 2014 [29] and 40% of HIV-positive trans men in the U.S. in 2018 [31] were black. Omission from medical research leaves trans men vulnerable to illnesses, STDs, [32] and malpractice.

Social harassment

Transmasculine people face social abuse, including bullying and harassment. [33] Stigma and negative attitudes towards transmasculine people's manhoods contribute to widespread mental health problems in the community. According to a 2018 study, 50.8% of transgender boys (ages 11–19) have attempted suicide. [34] The researchers asserted that "[t]here is an urgent need to understand why transgender, female to male, and non-binary adolescents report engaging in suicide behavior at higher levels than other adolescent transgender populations. ... Previous research in adults reveals that transgender men report higher levels of gender discrimination compared with transgender women, [33] which may help to explain this difference in suicide behavior." In addition, a 2013 study on transgender men's sexual health suggested that trans men's psychosocial health vulnerabilities may contribute to sexual risk behaviours and HIV and STD vulnerability. [35] TDOR, an organisation which collects reports of transgender people lost to violence, reports on transgender men who have lost their lives to suicide caused by prejudice against their transmasculinity. [36] [37]

Notable cases of discrimination against transgender men

Ewan Forbes' primogeniture challenge

Ewan Forbes was a Scottish trans man, who in 1968 was challenged to his right to inherit his father's baronetcy by his cousin, through the means of invasive medical testing and procedures. He won the baronetcy, but the case was subsequently hidden so as to not enable future cases in British transgender law to draw upon it as a precedent. Zoe Playdon wrote that the hiding of this case is due in part to discrimination against transgender men and ultimately had the effect of delaying transgender acceptance in the United Kingdom for the next 50 years. [38]

Assault and murder of Brandon Teena

Brandon Teena was a trans man who was raped and murdered in December 1993 in Humbodlt, Nebraska. [39] His death, alongside two of his friends, Phillip DeVine and Lisa Lambert, is thought to be a hate crime motivated by his status as a transgender man. His murderers, Marvin Nissen and John Lotter forced Teena to remove his trousers at a Christmas party to prove to Teena's partner that he had a vulva. Nissen and Lotter then forced Teena into a car and drove to a meat packing plant in Richardson County, where they beat and raped him. They then took him to Nissen's home and forced him to shower. Teena escaped from the bathroom window and sought refuge at Tisdel's house. Tisdel convinced Teena to file a report to the police despite Teena's fear of reprisals, as Nissen and Lotter had threatened they would "silence him permanently" if he did. [15]

At the police station a rape kit was assembled for Teena, but he did not receive the kit and it was subsequently lost. Later, Sheriff Charles B. Laux, focused in his interview on Teena's status as a transgender man, and Teena refused to answer some questions, finding them questions 'rude and unnecessary'. [15] Nissen and Lotter learned of Teena's police report and began to search for him. Before they found him however, they were taken in for questioning. However, Sheriff Laux refused to arrest them, reportedly because Teena had presented himself as a man when previously arrested, but now presented himself as a woman to access a rape kit due to his ability to get pregnant.

Many reproductive healthcare settings require the affected person to be perceived as female, or healthcare will not be dispensed. For example: access to the emergency contraceptive pill is restricted to people who appear as cisgender women in many UK pharmacies and sexual health clinics. Cisgender men cannot buy or otherwise obtain the pill to give the person who will take it, as the duty of care of pharmacists means that they must see the individual who is going to take the pill in person and assess their suitability for it. [40] Due to transphobia and cissexism, transgender men who pass as cisgender men may be denied pregnancy terminating reproductive healthcare on the basis that pregnancy in men is still largely unheard of. As a result of these kinds of barriers to reproductive health, Teena presented himself as a woman to the police station in order to avoid any delays in assistance. Sheriff Laux is reported to have said "What kind of a person was she? The first few times we arrested her she was putting herself off as a guy." in defence of his refusal to arrest Nissen and Lotter. [15]

On 31 December 1993 Nissen and Lotter broke into the home of Lisa Lambert, where Teena was hiding. They subsequently killed every adult in the house, including Teena, Lambert and Phillip DeVine.

Teena is buried in Lincoln Memorial Cemetery, in Lincoln, Nebraska. His headstone misgenders him as a "daughter, sister, friend." [41]

Media Coverage

The media coverage of Teena's death is somewhat controversial. Several scholars have pointed out the inaccuracies of subsequent film adaptations of the events leading up to Teena's murder in 1993. [42] Televised coverage also drew criticism, after Saturday Night Live cast member Norm MacDonald remarked "Excuse me if this sounds harsh, but in my mind they all deserved to die" [43] [44] during the program's 400th episode broadcast on the 24th February 1996. This was received negatively by many trans and lesbian communities, who viewed the comments as inflammatory towards the transmasculine community. [44]

Related Research Articles

The word cisgender describes a person whose gender identity corresponds to their sex assigned at birth, i.e., someone who is not transgender. The prefix cis- is Latin and means on this side of. The term cisgender was coined in 1994 as an antonym to transgender, and entered into dictionaries starting in 2015 as a result of changes in social discourse about gender. The term has been and continues to be controversial and subject to critique.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transphobia</span> Anti-transgender prejudice

Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. People of color who are transgender experience discrimination above and beyond that which can be explained as a simple combination of transphobia and racism.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to transgender topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans man</span> Man assigned female at birth

A trans man is a man who was assigned female at birth. Trans men have a male gender identity, and many trans men undergo medical and social transition to alter their appearance in a way that aligns with their gender identity or alleviates gender dysphoria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transfeminism</span> Branch of feminism

Transfeminism, or trans feminism, is a branch of feminism focused on transgender women and informed by transgender studies. Transfeminism focuses on the effects of transmisogyny and patriarchy on trans women. It is related to the broader field of queer theory. The term was popularized by Emi Koyama in The Transfeminist Manifesto.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against transgender people</span> Violence or victimization against transgender people

Violence against transgender people includes emotional, physical, sexual, or verbal violence targeted towards transgender people. The term has also been applied to hate speech directed at transgender people and at depictions of transgender people in the media that reinforce negative stereotypes about them. Trans and non-binary gender adolescents can experience bashing in the form of bullying and harassment. When compared to their cisgender peers, trans and non-binary gender youth are at increased risk for victimisation and substance abuse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender rights in Iran</span>

Transgender rights in Iran are limited, with a narrow degree of official recognition of transgender identities by the government, but with trans individuals facing very high levels of discrimination, from the law, the state, and from wider society.

The gender binary is the classification of gender into two distinct forms of masculine and feminine, whether by social system, cultural belief, or both simultaneously. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders.

Various issues in medicine relate to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people. According to the US Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA), besides HIV/AIDS, issues related to LGBTQ health include breast and cervical cancer, hepatitis, mental health, substance use disorders, alcohol use, tobacco use, depression, access to care for transgender persons, issues surrounding marriage and family recognition, conversion therapy, refusal clause legislation, and laws that are intended to "immunize health care professionals from liability for discriminating against persons of whom they disapprove."

Womyn-born womyn (WBW) is a term developed during second-wave feminism to designate women who were assigned female at birth, were raised as girls, and identify as women. The policy is noted for exclusion of trans women. Third-wave feminism and fourth-wave feminism have generally done away with the idea of WBW.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transmisogyny</span> Intersection of transphobia and misogyny, experienced by transfeminine individuals

Transmisogyny, otherwise known as trans-misogyny and transphobic misogyny, is the intersection of transphobia and misogyny as experienced by trans women and transfeminine people. The term was coined by Julia Serano in her 2007 book Whipping Girl to describe a particular form of oppression experienced by trans women. In a 2017 interview with The New York Times, Serano explores the roots of transmisogyny as a critique of feminine gender expressions which are "ridiculed in comparison to masculine interests and gender expression."

<i>Whipping Girl</i> 2007 book on transgender issues by Julia Serano

Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity is a 2007 book by the gender theorist, biologist, and writer Julia Serano. The book is a transfeminist manifesto that makes the case that transphobia is rooted in sexism and that transgender activism is a feminist movement. The second edition of the book was published in March 2016.

Feminist views on transgender topics vary widely.

Transgender pregnancy is the gestation of one or more embryos or fetuses by transgender people. As of 2024, the possibility is restricted to those born with female reproductive systems. However, transition-related treatments may impact fertility. Transgender men and nonbinary people who are or wish to become pregnant face social, medical, legal, and psychological concerns. As uterus transplantations are currently experimental, and none have successfully been performed on trans women, they cannot become pregnant.

Transgender inequality is the unequal protection received by transgender people in work, school, and society in general. Transgender people regularly face transphobic harassment. Ultimately, one of the largest reasons that transgender people face inequality is due to a lack of public understanding of transgender people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of LGBTQ topics</span>

The following outline offers an overview and guide to LGBTQ topics:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sex workers</span>

Transgender sex workers are transgender people who work in the sex industry or perform sexual services in exchange for money or other forms of payment. In general, sex workers appear to be at great risk for serious health problems related to their profession, such as physical and sexual assault, robbery, murder, physical and mental health problems, and drug and alcohol addiction. Though all sex workers are at risk for the problems listed, some studies suggest that sex workers who engage in street-based work have a higher risk for experiencing these issues. Transgender sex workers experience high degrees of discrimination both in and outside of the sex industry and face higher rates of contracting HIV and experiencing violence as a result of their work. In addition, a clear distinction needs to be made between consensual sex work and sex trafficking where there is a lack of control and personal autonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against transgender people in the United States</span> Social and political issue in the U.S.

Violence against transgender people in the United States includes sexual, physical, and emotional violence. These acts of gender-based violence may result in the death of a transgender person. Transgender people are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender ones. Between 2008 and 2020, 271 murders on trans people were reported in USA, giving c. 0.83 murders per 1,000,000 inhabitants and placing USA somewhere in the middle between "safe" and "unsafe" states, with reservation for inaccuracies and possible underreporting from some locations.

Cisnormativity or cissexual assumption is the assumption that everyone is, or ought to be, cisgender. The term can further refer to a wider range of presumptions about gender assignment, such as the presumption of a gender binary, or expectations of conformity to gender roles even when transgender identities are otherwise acknowledged. Cisnormativity is a form of cisgenderism, an ideology which promotes various normative ideas about gender, to the invalidation of individuals' own gender identities, analogous to heterosexism or ableism.

References

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