Childhood gender nonconformity

Last updated

Childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) is a phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected gender-related sociological or psychological patterns, or identify with the opposite sex/gender. [1] Typical behavior among those who exhibit the phenomenon includes but is not limited to a propensity to cross-dress, refusal to take part in activities conventionally thought suitable for the gender and the exclusive choice of play-mates of the opposite sex.

Contents

Multiple studies have correlated childhood gender nonconformity with eventual homosexuality. In these studies, a majority of those who identify as gay or lesbian self-report being gender nonconforming as children. [2] [3] [4] The therapeutic community is divided over the proper response to childhood gender nonconformity.

Gender nonconforming children face gender policing from both adults and peers, including bullying and violence based on their gender nonconformity. Gender policing at a young age can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression in adulthood. [5] [6] [7]

Manifestations

Gender nonconformity in children can have many forms, reflecting various ways in which a child relates to their gender. In literature, gender variance and gender atypicality are used synonymously with gender nonconformity. [8]

Social and developmental theories of gender

The concept of childhood gender nonconformity assumes that there is a correct way to be a girl or a boy. There are a number of social and developmental perspectives that explore how children come to identify with a particular gender and engage in activities that are associated with this gender role.

Psychoanalytic theories of gender emphasize that children begin to identify with the parent, and that girls tend to identify with their mothers and boys with their fathers. The identification is often associated with the child's realization that they do not share the same genitals with both parents. According to Freud's theories, this discovery leads to penis envy in girls and castration anxiety in boys. Although there is not much empirical evidence to back up Freud, his theories sparked new conversations surrounding sexuality and gender, conversations his daughter Anna Freud continued in her research. [9]

Social learning theory emphasizes the rewards and punishments that children receive for sex appropriate or inappropriate behaviors. One of the criticisms of social learning theory is that it assumes that children are passive, rather than active participants in their social environment.

Cognitive development theory argues that children are active in defining gender and behaving in ways that reflect their perceptions of gender roles. Children are in search of regularities and consistencies in their environment, and the pursuit of cognitive consistency motivates children to behave in ways that are congruent with the societal constructions of gender.

Gender schema theory is a hybrid model that combines social learning and cognitive development theories. Developed by Sandra Bem in 1981, her husband Daryl J. Bem argues that children have a cognitive readiness to learn about themselves and their surroundings. They build schemas to help them navigate their social world, and these schemas form a larger network of associations and beliefs about gender and gender roles. [10]

Influences of androgens

Toy preference studies

Studies with young rhesus macaques suggest that some gender-typical preferences may not only be caused by human socialization. Young Rhesus Macaque.jpg
Studies with young rhesus macaques suggest that some gender-typical preferences may not only be caused by human socialization.

According to popular gender stereotypes toys for girls tend to be round and pink, while toys for boys tend to be angular and blue. The subtle characteristics of toys may differentially appeal to the developing brains of female and male children. [11] In a study of toy preferences of twelve- to 24-month-old infants, males spent more time looking at cars than females and females spent more time looking at dolls than males. No preference for color was found, and within each sex, both boys and girls preferred dolls to cars at age 12 months. [12] [13] A study of preschool-aged children found that the cultural labeling of toys as "gender-appropriate" impacted toy preferences. In partial contrast to this view, certain animal studies have lent support for biologically determined gendered toy preferences. In a study of juvenile rhesus monkeys, when given the option between plush or wheeled toys, female monkeys gravitated toward both toys, while male monkeys mainly preferred toys with wheels. These findings suggest that gendered preferences for toys can occur without the complex socialization processes that we find in humans. [14] Female rhesus monkeys also tend to engage in more nurturing play activities, while males tend to engage in more rough-and-tumble play. However, the co-author of the study warned about overinterpreting the results, stating "The plush and wheeled categories served as proxies for feminine and masculine, but other toy characteristics, such as size or colour, might explain the male's behaviour, or the male monkeys might seek out more physically active toys." [15]

Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have atypically high blood concentrations of testosterone. In studies of toy preference, these girls show increased interest in male-typical toys, like trucks and balls. Overall, their play habits and preferences more closely resembled male-typical play than female-typical play. Even with children exposed to a normal range of prenatal androgens, increased testosterone was associated with increased preference for male-typical toys, and decreased prenatal testosterone was associated with a greater interest in female-typical toys.

Overall, the degree of androgen exposure during prenatal and postnatal development may bias males and females toward specific cognitive processes, which are further reinforced through processes of socialization. The male interest in balls and wheeled toys may relate to the androgenised brains preference for objects that move through space. The higher levels of androgens in the developing male brain could elicit greater attraction to cars and balls, while lower levels of androgens elicit a preference for dolls and nurturing activities in the female brain. [13]

Cordelia Fine criticizes toy-preference studies in non-human primates. She explains the disparity across research and the labeling of toys, with the rhesus monkey study deeming stuffed animals as inherently feminine, all the while a study with vervet monkeys shows males displaying a preference for stuffed dogs. Moreover, the effects of hormonal treatment are deemed inconclusive and significant long-term effects on rhesus monkeys being nonexistent, with treated prenatal females showing no increase in aggression and still adopting "feminine" social roles into adulthood. [16]

On the subject of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Fine presents the argument of correlation being confused for causality; are females with CAH interested in typically masculine activities due to their having an innate quality or is this a result of their association with boys and men as a gender? If a visual and spatial value is deemed as a preeminent element in typically masculine toys (such as trucks), females with CAH and males in studies should consequently show a much higher interest for neutral toys such as puzzles and sketchpads (as opposed to non-CAH females), something which they do not. [16]

Playmate and play-style preferences

Children's preference for same-sex playmates is a robust finding that has been observed in many human cultures and across a number of animal species. Preference for same-sex playmates is at least partially linked to socialization processes, but children may also gravitate toward peers with similar play styles. Girls generally engage in more nurturing-and-mothering-type behaviors, while boys show greater instances of rough-and-tumble play. [17] For much of human history, people lived in small hunter-gatherer societies. Over time evolutionary forces may have selected for children's play activities related to adult survival skills.

However, it is not uncommon for girls and boys to prefer opposite-sex playmates and to engage in gender-atypical play styles. As with toy preferences, androgens may be involved in playmate and play style preferences. Girls who have congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) typically engage in more rough-and-tumble play. Hines and Kaufman (1994) found that 50% of girls with CAH reported a preference for boys as playmates, while less than 10% of their non-CAH sisters preferred boys as playmates. [17] Another study found that girls with CAH still preferred same-sex playmates, but their atypical play styles resulted in them spending more time alone engaging in their preferred activities. Girls with CAH are more likely to have masculinized genitalia, and it has been suggested that this could lead parents to treat them more like boys; however, this claim is unsubstantiated by parental reports. [18]

Adult traits

There have been a number of studies correlating childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) and sexual orientation; however, the relationship between CGN and personality traits in adulthood has been largely overlooked. Lippa measured CGN, gender-related occupational preferences, self-ascribed masculinity-femininity and anxiety in heterosexual and homosexual women and men through self-report measures. Gay men showed a tendency toward more feminine self-concepts than heterosexual men. Similarly, lesbian women reported "higher self-ascribed masculinity, more masculine occupational preferences, and more CGN than heterosexual women." Lippa's study found stronger correlations in CGN and adult personality traits in men than in women. Overall, Lippa's study suggests that gender nonconforming behaviors are relatively stable across a person's life-time. [19]

One of the advantages of Lippa's study is the relatively high sample size of 950 participants, which was diverse both in terms of representations of sexual orientation and ethnicity. Although there may be a tendency to want to generalize these findings to all heterosexual and homosexual men and women, an awareness that a tendency toward certain behaviors does not mean that they are a monolithic group is necessary; for some individuals, sexual orientation may be the only thing they have in common. [19]

Measures of anxiety

CGN is associated with higher levels of psychological distress in gay men than in lesbian women. The findings were extended to heterosexual men and women, where "CGN [was] associated with psychological distress in heterosexual men but not in heterosexual women." [19] In effect, "CGN impacts men more negatively than women, regardless of sexual orientation." [19] The pattern of results may be derived by from society's greater acceptance of typically masculine behaviors in girls, and discouragement of typically feminine behaviors in boys. [19] [20]

Sexual orientation

A great deal of research has been conducted on the relationship between CGN and sexual orientation. Gay men often report being feminine boys, and lesbian women often report being masculine girls. In men, CGN is a strong predictor of sexual orientation in adulthood, but this relationship is not as well understood in women. [2] [4] [21] [22] Women with CAH reported more male typical play behaviours and showed less heterosexual interest. [18]

The fraternal birth order effect is a well-documented phenomenon that predicts that a man's odds of being homosexual increase 33-48% with each older brother that the man has. Research has shown that the mother develops an immune response due to blood factor incompatibility with male fetuses. With each male fetus, the mother's immune system responds more strongly to what it perceives as a threat. The mother's immune response can disrupt typical prenatal hormones, like testosterone, which have been implicated in both childhood gender nonconformity and adult sexual orientation.

Bem proposed a theory on the relationship between childhood gender nonconformity, which he refers to as the "exotic become erotic" (EBE). [10] Bem argues that biological factors, such as prenatal hormones, genes and neuroanatomy, predispose children to behave in ways that do not conform to their sex assigned at birth. Gender nonconforming children will often prefer opposite-sex playmates and activities. These become alienated from their same-sex peer group. As children enter adolescence "the exotic becomes erotic" where dissimilar and unfamiliar same-sex peers produce arousal, and the general arousal becomes eroticized over time. [10] Critiques of Bem's theory in the journal Psychological Review concluded that "studies cited by Bem and additional research show that Exotic Becomes Erotic theory is not supported by scientific evidence." [23] Bem was criticized for relying on a non-random sample of gay men from the 1970s and for drawing conclusions that appear to contradict the original data. An "examination of the original data showed virtually all respondents were familiar with children of both sexes", and that only 9% of gay men said that "none or only a few" of their friends were male, and most gay men (74%) reported having "an especially close friend of the same sex" during grade school. It is also noted that "71% of gay men reported feeling different from other boys, but so did 38% of heterosexual men. The difference for gay men is larger, but still indicates that feeling different from same-sex peers was common for heterosexual men." Bem also acknowledged that gay men were more likely to have older brothers (the fraternal birth order effect), which appeared to contradict an unfamiliarity with males. Bem cited cross-cultural studies which also "appear to contradict the EBE theory assertion", such as the Sambia tribe in Papua New Guinea, which ritually enforced homosexual acts among teenagers, yet once these boys reached adulthood, only a small proportion of men continued to engage in homosexual behaviour - similar to levels observed in the United States. Additionally, Bem's theory is criticized for misrepresenting common experiences of lesbians. [23]

In 2003, Lorene Gottschalk, a self-described radical feminist suggested there may be a reporting bias linking gender nonconformity to homosexuality. [24] Researchers have explored the possibility of bias by comparing childhood home videos with self-reports of gender nonconformity, finding that the presence of gender nonconformity was highly consistent with self-reporting, emerged early and carried on into adulthood. [25]

Gender dysphoria

Children with gender dysphoria, also known as gender identity disorder (GID), exhibit the typical gender-nonconforming patterns of behaviors, such as a preference for toys, playmates, clothing, and play-styles that are typically associated with the opposite sex. Children with GID will sometimes display disgust toward their own genitals or changes that occur in puberty (e.g. facial hair or menstruation). [26] A diagnosis of GID in children requires evidence of discomfort, confusion, or aversion to the gender roles associated with the child's genetic sex. Children do not necessarily have to express a desire to be the opposite sex, but it is still taken into consideration when making a diagnosis. [26] Since the DSM-5 was released in 2013, children must express a desire to be of a gender different to that assigned at birth for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria in childhood. [27]

Some advocates have argued that a DSM-IV diagnosis legitimizes the experiences of these children, making it easier to rally around a medically defined disorder, in order to raise public awareness and garner funding for future research and therapies. Diagnoses of gender identity disorder in children (GIDC) remains controversial, as many argue that the label pathologizes behaviors and cognitions that fall within the normal variation within gender. The stigma associated with mental health disorders may do more harm than good. [26] The DSM-5 renamed the condition gender dysphoria to avoid this stigma. [28]

Parental reactions

Parents with gender non-conforming children may not know where to turn to express their feelings. Many parents accept their child's behavior, but are more concerned about the overall well-being of the child. In some cases families are not accepting of their child's non-conformity, typically lashing out with punishment grounded on homophobia and sexism. Regardless of the stance a parent decides to take on gender non-conformity, it will affect the child and the child's relationship with the family.

Transphobia can occur when gender nonconforming children are met with others who do not understand or accept what they are going through. Diane Ehrensaft states that, "Transphobia is the anxieties, prejudices, aspersion, aggression, and hatred cast on individuals who do not accept the gender assigned to them at birth but instead play outside that definition of self or perhaps any binary categorizations of gender, possibly to the extent of altering their body." [29] Transphobia can become a serious conflict within the family and can damage the relationship the child has with his or her family.

Parents who recognize that they have gender non-conforming children sometimes experience a feeling of loss, shock, denial, anger, and despair. [30] These feelings typically subside as a parent learns more about gender nonconformity. However, there are families that remain unaccepting of gender nonconformity and correlate it to psychological or social problems. Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist Jean Malpas says, "Some react very negatively and the gender nonconformity can become a significant source of conflict between parents and a damaging source of disconnection between parent and child." [31]

Diane Ehrensaft divides families into three types, affecting the outcome of a child's gender transition. "Transformers", in her system, are comfortable in supporting their child in their gender-variant journey and can easily identify their child as a separate person; Ehrensaft says they "will stand a good chance of overcoming whatever transphobic reactions may reside within them to evolve into parents who both meet their child where he or she is and become an advocate for their gender-nonconforming child in the outside world." [29] "Transphobics" are not comfortable in their own gender, may not understand that gender is fluid, may feel their child is an extension of themselves, and respond negatively when their child is faced with adversity; Ehrensaft believes that these parents undermine the love they express for their children with excessive negativity and transphobic "reactivity", denying the child room for nonconformity. Finally, "transporters" appear to be completely accepting of their child's gender nonconformity, while privately doubting its authenticity, and may say things like "it's just a phase" or "they'll grow out of it."

Peer reactions

Once children reach school age, girls who are considered "tomboys" and boys who are considered to be more "sensitive" than their gender-typical peers are more likely to face challenges during childhood than their gender-typical counterparts. It is possible that their nonconformity goes unnoticed, however, it is more likely that they fall victim to bullying and harassment when they reach school age. [32] In a study on gender-atypical fifteen year olds, atypical males self-report being lonelier, bullied more, less likely to have male friends, and be in "greater distress" than gender-typical males in the same demographic. [33]

Needs of gender-nonconforming children and families

There is still controversy regarding the best approach for gender nonconforming children, but as gender nonconformity becomes more widely accepted many parents and professionals have identified things that gender variant or gender nonconforming children need to easily adjust to their transformation. [34] Parents have suggested that their children need the ability to discuss their gender non-conformity freely with their parents, to be loved throughout their transformation, and to be permitted to make choices regarding their gender on their own. They have also suggested a peer support team and supportive counseling in addition to support from their school and schools administrators and authorities. [34]

Parents must be mindful of a child's need for parent expressions of acceptance and validation. If not validated a child may begin sharing less with their parent and more with friends, this could lead to the parent thinking the gender nonconformity was just a brief phase. [35]

Disclosure is also very important to a family when raising a gender non-conforming child. Parents need to consider whom to talk to about their child and what type of information they decide to share. Other members of the family must also be prepared to make decisions regarding what to say and whom to say it to. [36]

Regarding their own needs, parents have suggested that they need information regarding gender nonconforming children that can better assist them and their child in making their transition. Additionally, parents have stated they need increased education on gender-nonconforming children, and support from surrounding friends and family to help build parental confidence. Parents have also suggested they need counseling to help provide direction, support from medical professionals and peers, and access to transgender people to help provide them with a positive portrayal of transgender communities. [34]

A 2018 article in The Sunday Times , by journalist Andrew Gilligan, reported criticism of trans groups for large increases in the number of child referrals to the UK National Health Service specialist service dealing with Transgender children. [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual orientation</span> Pattern of romantic or sexual attraction

Sexual orientation is an enduring personal pattern of romantic attraction or sexual attraction to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. Patterns are generally categorized under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, while asexuality is sometimes identified as the fourth category.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biology and sexual orientation</span> Field of sexual orientation research

The relationship between biology and sexual orientation is a subject of on-going research. While scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. However, evidence is weak for hypotheses that the post-natal social environment impacts sexual orientation, especially for males.

Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and consistent with the individual's gender identity. Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity, but this is not always the case. While a person may express behaviors, attitudes, and appearances consistent with a particular gender role, such expression may not necessarily reflect their gender identity. The term gender identity was coined by psychiatry professor Robert J. Stoller in 1964 and popularized by the controversial psychologist John Money.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomboy</span> A girl who behaves in a manner considered typical of boys

Tomboy is a term used for girls or young women with masculine traits. It can include wearing androgynous or unfeminine clothing and engaging in physical sports or other activities and behaviors usually associated with boys or men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homosexuality and psychology</span> Homosexuality as viewed by the field of psychology

The field of psychology has extensively studied homosexuality as a human sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1952, but that classification came under scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That research and subsequent studies consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as anything other than a natural and normal sexual orientation that is a healthy and positive expression of human sexuality. As a result of this scientific research, the American Psychiatric Association declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder in 1973. Upon a thorough review of the scientific data, the American Psychological Association followed in 1975 and also called on all mental health professionals to take the lead in "removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated" with homosexuality. In 1993, the National Association of Social Workers adopted the same position as the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association, in recognition of scientific evidence. The World Health Organization, which listed homosexuality in the ICD-9 in 1977, removed homosexuality from the ICD-10 which was endorsed by the 43rd World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daryl Bem</span> American psychologist (born 1938)

Daryl J. Bem is a social psychologist and professor emeritus at Cornell University. He is the originator of the self-perception theory of attitude formation and change. He has also researched psi phenomena, group decision making, handwriting analysis, sexual orientation, and personality theory and assessment.

In sociology, homosociality means same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship, mentorship, or others. Researchers who use the concept mainly do so to explain how men uphold men's dominance in society.

Gender expression, or gender presentation, is a person's behavior, mannerisms, and appearance that are socially associated with gender, namely femininity or masculinity. Gender expression can also be defined as the external manifestation of one's gender identity through behavior, clothing, hairstyles, voice, or body characteristics. Typically, people think about a person's gender expression in terms of masculinity and femininity, but there are many ways to mix both feminine and masculine in identity. A person's gender expression may or may not match their assigned sex at birth. This includes gender roles, and accordingly relies on cultural stereotypes about gender. It is distinct from gender identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation</span> Theory of sexual orientation

Fraternal birth order has been correlated with male sexual orientation, with a significant volume of research finding that the more older brothers a male has from the same mother, the greater the probability he will have a homosexual orientation. Ray Blanchard and Anthony Bogaert first identified the association in the 1990s and named it the fraternal birth order effect. Scientists have attributed the effect to a prenatal biological mechanism, since the association is only present in men with older biological brothers, and not present among men with older step-brothers and adoptive brothers. The mechanism is thought to be a maternal immune response to male fetuses, whereby antibodies neutralize male Y-proteins thought to play a role in sexual differentiation during development. This would leave some regions of the brain associated with sexual orientation in the 'female typical' arrangement – or attracted to men. Biochemical evidence for this hypothesis was identified in 2017, finding mothers with a gay son, particularly those with older brothers, had heightened levels of antibodies to the NLGN4Y Y-protein than mothers with heterosexual sons.

Human male sexuality encompasses a wide variety of feelings and behaviors. Men's feelings of attraction may be caused by various physical and social traits of their potential partner. Men's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions, individual personality, upbringing, and culture. While most men are heterosexual, there are minorities of homosexual or varying degrees of bisexual men.

Gender variance or gender nonconformity is behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms. A gender-nonconforming person may be variant in their gender identity, being transgender or non-binary, or they may be cisgender. In the case of transgender people, they may be perceived, or perceive themselves as, gender-nonconforming before transitioning, but might not be perceived as such after transitioning. Transgender adults who appear gender-nonconforming after transition are more likely to experience discrimination.

A relationship between handedness and sexual orientation has been suggested by a number of researchers, who report that heterosexual individuals are somewhat more likely to be right-handed than are homosexual individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environment and sexual orientation</span> Field of sexual orientation research

The relationship between the environment and sexual orientation is a subject of research. In the study of sexual orientation, some researchers distinguish environmental influences from hormonal influences, while other researchers include biological influences such as prenatal hormones as part of environmental influences.

Gender typing is the process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they identify as their own. This process is important for a child's social and personality development because it largely impacts the child's understanding of expected social behavior and influences social judgments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation</span> Hormonal theory of sexuality

The hormonal theory of sexuality holds that, just as exposure to certain hormones plays a role in fetal sex differentiation, such exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the individual. Prenatal hormones may be seen as the primary determinant of adult sexual orientation, or a co-factor with genes, biological factors and/or environmental and social conditions.

The sexual orientation hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Donald McCreary in 1994 that attempts to explain the impact of gender stereotypes on judgments about sexual orientation. This hypothesis states that feminine men are more likely to be assumed gay than masculine women are to be assumed lesbians. This model asserts a broad tendency to associate gender-atypical behavior in men with homosexuality. This is combined with a stigmatization of behaviors held as signs of same-sex attraction in men, and reinforces a stronger culture of exclusive homophobia than among young women.

<i>Sexual Preference</i> (book) 1981 book

Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women (1981) is a book about the development of sexual orientation by the psychologist Alan P. Bell and the sociologists Martin S. Weinberg and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith, in which the authors reevaluate what were at the time of its publication widely held ideas about the origins of heterosexuality and homosexuality, sometimes rejecting entirely the factors proposed as causes, and in other cases concluding that their importance had been exaggerated. Produced with the help of the American National Institute of Mental Health, the study was a publication of the Institute for Sex Research. Together with its Statistical Appendix, Sexual Preference was the conclusion of a series of books including Homosexuality: An Annotated Bibliography (1972) and Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women (1978), both co-authored by Bell and Weinberg.

Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, their gender or sex that was assigned to them at birth. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating one's own gender identity. Gender mainstreaming is a public policy concept, whereas gender policing is a more general social phenomenon.

Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, the environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.

Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities are a topic of much debate; some people believe traditional, heterosexual gender roles are often erroneously enforced on non-heterosexual relationships by means of heteronormative culture and attitudes towards these non-conformative relationships.

References

  1. ↑ Kathleen Y.; Anthony I.; Ritter, Terndrup (2002). Handbook of Affirmative Psychotherapy with Lesbians and Gay Men . Guilford Press. pp.  58. ISBN   978-1-57230-714-8.
  2. 1 2 Baumeister, Roy F. (2001). Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Essential Readings. Psychology Press. pp. 201–2. ISBN   978-1-84169-018-6.
  3. ↑ Carolyn S. Schroeder; Betty N. Gordon (2002). Assessment and Treatment of Childhood Problems, Second Edition: A Clinician's Guide. Guilford Press. p. 229. ISBN   1606234226 . Retrieved January 29, 2015.
  4. 1 2 Friedman, RC (2008). Sexual Orientation and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Sexual Science and Clinical Practice. Columbia University Press. pp. 53–7. ISBN   978-0-231-12057-9.
  5. ↑ Bauermeister, José A.; Connochie, Daniel; Jadwin-Cakmak, Laura; Meanley, Steven (May 2017). "Gender Policing During Childhood and the Psychological Well-Being of Young Adult Sexual Minority Men in the United States". American Journal of Men's Health. 11 (3): 693–701. doi:10.1177/1557988316680938. ISSN   1557-9883. PMC   5393921 . PMID   27903954.
  6. ↑ Payne E., Smith M. J. Gender policing // Critical concepts in queer studies and education. — Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2016. — P. 127—136.
  7. ↑ Sergio Domínguez Jr. and Stephanie L. Budge. Gender nonconformity // The SAGE encyclopedia of trans studies. – Sage Publications, 2021.
  8. 1 2 Adelson L., Stewart (2012). "Practice Parameter on Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual Orientation, Gender Nonconformity, and Gender Discordance in Children and Adolescents". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 51 (9): 957–974. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.004 . PMID   22917211.
  9. ↑ Ehrensaft, Diane (2014). "and Learning from Gender Nonconforming Children". The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 68 (1): 28–56. doi:10.1080/00797308.2015.11785504. ISSN   2474-3356. PMID   26173325. S2CID   7818368 . Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  10. 1 2 3 Bem, D.J. (1996). "Exotic Becomes Erotic: A Developmental Theory of Sexual Orientation". Psychological Review. 103 (2): 320–335. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.320.
  11. ↑ Jadva, V.; et al. (2010). "Infants' preferences for toys, colors and shapes". Arch. Sex. Behav. 39 (6): 1261–73. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9618-z. PMID   20232129. S2CID   13024913.
  12. ↑ Alexander, G.M. (2003). "An evolutionary perspective of sex-typed toy preferences: pink, blue, and the brain". Arch. Sex. Behav. 32 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1023/A:1021833110722. PMID   12597267. S2CID   19895164.
  13. 1 2 Hines, M. (2010). "Sex-related variation in human behavior and the brain". Trends in Neurosciences. 14 (10): 448–56. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.07.005. PMC   2951011 . PMID   20724210.
  14. ↑ Hassett, Janice M.; Siebert, Erin R.; Wallen, Kim. (2008). "Differences in Rhesus Monkey Toy Preferences Parallel those of Children". Hormones and Behavior. 54 (3): 359–64. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.03.008. PMC   2583786 . PMID   18452921.
  15. ↑ "Male monkeys prefer boys' toys". New Scientist. Retrieved 2017-10-02.
  16. 1 2 Fine, Cordelia (2010). Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference . W. W. Norton & Company. pp.  338. ISBN   978-0-393-06838-2.
  17. 1 2 Hines, M.; Kaufman, Melissa; Francine, R. (1994). "Androgen and the Development of Human Sex-Typical Behavior: Rough and Tumble Play and Sex of Preferred Playmates in Children with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)". Child Development. 65 (4): 1042–53. doi:10.2307/1131303. JSTOR   1131303. PMID   7956464.
  18. 1 2 Hines, M.; Brook, C.; Conway, G.S. (2004). "Androgen and Psychosexual Development: Core Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation, and Recalled Childhood Gender Role Behavior in Women and Men with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)". Journal of Sex Research. 41 (1): 75–81. doi:10.1080/00224490409552215. PMID   15216426. S2CID   33519930.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Lippa, Richard (2008). "The Relation between Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Adult Masculinity–Femininity and Anxiety in Heterosexual and Homosexual Men and Women". Sex Roles. 59 (9–10): 684–93. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9476-5. S2CID   10295520.
  20. ↑ Skidmore, W.C.; Linsenmeier, J.A.W.; Bailey, J.M. (2006). "Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Distress in Lesbians and Gay Men". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (6): 685–97. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5. PMID   17109224. S2CID   21131479.
  21. ↑ Dunne, Michael P.; Bailey, J.M.; Kirk, K.M.; Martin, N.G. (2000). "The Subtlety of Sex-Atypicality". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 29 (6): 549–65. doi:10.1023/A:1002002420159. PMID   11100262. S2CID   17955872.
  22. ↑ Bailey, J.M.; Zucker, K.J. (1995). "Childhood Sex-typed Behavior and Sexual Orientation: A Conceptual Analysis and Quantitative Review". Developmental Psychology. 21 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43. S2CID   28174284.
  23. 1 2 Peplau, Letitia A.; Garnets, Linda D.; Spalding, Leah R; Conley, Terri D.; Veniegas, Rosemary C. (May 1998). "A Critique of Bern's "Exotic Becomes Erotic" Theory of Sexual Orientation" (PDF). Psychological Review. 105 (2): 387–394. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.387. PMID   9577243 – via PubMed.
  24. ↑ Gottschalk L (2003). "Same-Sex Sexuality and Childhood Gender Non-Conformity: A Spurious Connection". Journal of Gender Studies. 12 (1): 35–50. doi:10.1080/0958923032000067808. hdl:1959.17/35289. S2CID   4178447.
  25. ↑ Rieger, Gerulf; Linsenmeier, Joan A. W.; Gygax, Lorenz; Bailey, J. Michael (2008). "Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: evidence from home videos". Developmental Psychology. 44 (1): 46–58. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46. ISSN   0012-1649. PMID   18194004. S2CID   41662483.
  26. 1 2 3 Langer, Susan J.; Martin, James I. (February 2004). "How Dresses Can Make You Mentally Ill: Examining Gender Identity Disorder in Children". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 21 (1): 5–23. doi:10.1023/B:CASW.0000012346.80025.f7. S2CID   144802813.
  27. ↑ "What Is Gender Dysphoria?". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2021-05-18.
  28. ↑ American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Fact Sheets, Updated Disorders: Gender Dysphoria (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 2013): 2 ("DSM-5 aims to avoid stigma and ensure clinical care for individuals who see and feel themselves to be a different gender than their assigned gender. It replaces the diagnostic name 'gender identity disorder' with 'gender dysphoria', as well as makes other important clarifications in the criteria.").
  29. 1 2 Ehrensaft, Diane, PhD. "Boys Will Be Girls, Girls will Be Boys: Children Affect Parents as Parents Affect Children in Gender Nonconformity." Psychoanalytic Psychology 28.4 (2011): 528-48. Print.
  30. ↑ Children's National Medical Center. If You Are Concerned About Your Childs Gender Behavior. N.p.: Children's National Medical Center, n.d. Children's National Medical Center. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
  31. ↑ Malpas, Jean. "Between Pink and Blue: A Multi-Dimensional Family Approach to Gender Nonconforming Children and Their Families." Family Process 50.4 (2011): 453-470. Print.
  32. ↑ Haldeman, Douglas C (2000). "Gender atypical youth: Clinical and social issues". School Psychology Review. 29 (2): 192. doi:10.1080/02796015.2000.12086007. S2CID   142509837.
  33. ↑ Young, Robert, and Helen Sweeting. "Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological well-being, and gender-atypical behavior: A gender diagnosticity approach." Sex Roles 50, no. 7-8 (2004): 525-537.
  34. 1 2 3 Reilly, Elizabeth A., Gomathi Sitharthan, Lindy Clemson, and Milton Diamond. "Recognizing the Needs of Gender-variant Children and Their Parents." Sex Education 13.6 (2013): 644-59. Print.
  35. ↑ Menvielle, Edgardo J.; Tuerk, Catherine (2002). "A Support Group for Parents of Gender-Nonconforming Boys". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 41 (8): 1010–013. doi:10.1097/00004583-200208000-00021. PMID   12162618.
  36. ↑ "Parent Considerations." Gender Spectrum. Gender Spectrum, n.d. Web. http://www.genderspectrum.org.
  37. ↑ Gilligan, Andrew (25 November 2018). "Trans groups under fire for huge rise in child referrals". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.