Gendered associations of pink and blue

Last updated

Children in blue and pink clothing. Children in blue and pink.jpg
Children in blue and pink clothing.
This restroom sign on an All Nippon Airways Boeing 767-300 uses pink for the female gender and blue for the male gender. ANAB767300Restroomsign.jpg
This restroom sign on an All Nippon Airways Boeing 767-300 uses pink for the female gender and blue for the male gender.

The colors pink and blue are associated with girls and boys respectively in large parts of the Western world.

Contents

Originating as a trend in the mid-19th century and applying primarily to clothing, gendered associations with pink and blue became more widespread from the 1950s onward. Since the 1990s, these gendered associations have also increasingly applied to toys as well, especially in the case of pink toys for girls. Additionally, a pink ribbon is a symbol of breast cancer awareness, and the two colors are used at gender reveal parties.

History

Pierre-Auguste Renoir's son Jean sewing (1900) Pierre-Auguste Renoir 048.jpg
Pierre-Auguste Renoir's son Jean sewing (1900)

According to Jo Paoletti, who spent two decades studying the history of pink and blue gender-coding, there were no particular color associations for girls and boys at the turn of the 20th century. There was no agreement among manufacturers about which colors were feminine or masculine, or whether there were any such colors at all. [1] [2]

First half of the 20th century

Children's clothing began to be differentiated by gender in matters of cut, pockets, images, and decoration, but not by color. [2] During the period 1900–1930, the fashions of young boys began to change in style, but not color. Pink and blue were used together as "baby colors". Birth announcements and baby books used both colors well into the 1950s, and then gradually became accepted as feminine and masculine colors. Styles and colors formerly considered neutral, including flowers, dainty trim, and the color pink, became more associated with only girls and women. [3] Paoletti summarized the evolution of pink and blue associations with girls and boys: "It is clear that pink-blue gender coding was known in the late 1860s but was not dominant until the 1950s in most parts of the United States and not universal until a generation later." [4]

In 1927, a chart published in Time magazine summarized the recommended hues at major department stores in the United States: six said pink for boys and blue for girls; four said the opposite. [5] [1] [6]

Second half of the 20th century

A number of personalities and cultural icons of the 1950s and early 1960s had a great influence on the public awareness and use of pink in fashion and decoration, including Mamie Eisenhower, [7] Marilyn Monroe, and Brigitte Bardot. [8]

Mamie Eisenhower, in her White House portrait Mamie-Eisenhower.jpg
Mamie Eisenhower, in her White House portrait

Mamie Eisenhower was influential in the growing shift among women in the United States, and to some extent abroad, towards the association between pink and women's fashion and decorating. Mrs. Eisenhower was well known for preferring pink both in clothing and home decoration well before she became first lady, and more so after 1952 with the election of her husband Dwight D. Eisenhower as President of the United States. So much so, that a particular shade, known as "Mamie Pink" was named after her. When she took up residence in the White House in January 1953 she brought her favorite color with her, wearing a pink gown covered in pink rhinestones to the inaugural balls, and redecorating the White House in pink, to such an extent that it became known among the press corps as "The Pink Palace". Her tastes were picked up by the American public, and "Mamie Pink" became an iconic color in decorating in the 1950s, being used in bathroom fixtures, tiles, kitchen appliances, and more. [7] [9]

Monroe performing the song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) wearing a pink dress Gentlemen Prefer Blondes Movie Trailer Screenshot (34).jpg
Monroe performing the song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) wearing a pink dress

Marilyn Monroe was already famous as a sex symbol in the early 1950s when the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes came out. The musical comedy featured Monroe in the most famous musical number in the film, Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend, in a now iconic floor length, skin-tight silk dress in shocking pink with a big bow on the back and matching shoulder length gloves. Monroe defined femininity and seduction and her influence never ended. [10]

Brigitte Bardot wore checkered pink gingham as her wedding dress for her wedding in 1959. This was formerly a material used only for curtains and created a sensation, and was widely copied and influential. [8]

Colored items

Clothing

For infant and children's clothing, ribbons, and other items, the pink for girls, blue for boys associations known in European countries included: the Netherlands (1823), [11] France (1834), [12] Russia (1842), [13] Great Britain (1862), [14] and Spain (1896); [15] and in the Americas: in the United States, [16] and Mexico (1899). [17]

A contrarian tendency to avoid gendered clothing colors for children and towards more unisex clothing in the United States began in the late 1960s, influenced by the Baby Boomer generation reaching child-bearing age, and the effects of second-wave feminism. [18]

Pink Shirt Day

Pink Shirt Day is an annual event against bullying, held in Canada and New Zealand. [19] [20] Participants wear pink shirts and attend or host informative events to raise awareness about bullying, particularly in schools. Pink Shirt Day was started in 2007 in Canada, where it is held on the last Wednesday of February each year. [21] It was adopted in New Zealand in 2009 and is observed annually on the third Friday of May. [21]

International Day of Pink

The International Day of Pink is a worldwide anti-bullying and anti-homophobia event held annually during the second week of April. [22] Though similar to Pink Shirt Day (held in February) in that it also seeks to end all bullying, the Day of Pink is more specifically aimed towards anti-LGBTQ+ bullying. [23]

Toys

Shelves with pink-colored girls' toys, in a Canadian store Pink girls section of toy store.jpeg
Shelves with pink-colored girls' toys, in a Canadian store

In the United States, girlie-girl culture developed in the 1990s in the wake of a series of successful Disney animated films, starting with The Little Mermaid (1989). These animated films were heavily marketed to girls, especially, and pink was everywhere in marketing campaigns as they took advantage of what appeared to be a strong association between gender and certain colors: bold colors for boys, pastel colors for girls, especially pink. Eighty-six percent of pink toys were marketed as "girls only", and a similar percentage that were bold red, black, brown, or gray were for "boys only". Pink became a strong signal to girls and their parents about which products were being marketed to them. [24]

Awareness ribbons

Breast Cancer Awareness, Louisville, Kentucky Breast Cancer Awareness (263497131).jpg
Breast Cancer Awareness, Louisville, Kentucky

A pink awareness ribbon is used as a symbol for breast cancer awareness, and are commonly seen in October during Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The color pink was chosen for the ribbon in 1992, as a symbol of breast cancer awareness.[ citation needed ]

Breast cancer organizations use the pink ribbon to associate themselves with breast cancer, to promote breast cancer awareness, and to support fundraising. [25] Pink evokes traditional feminine gender roles, caring for other people, being beautiful, being good, and being cooperative. [26] Some breast cancer-related organizations, such as Pink Ribbon International use the pink ribbon as their primary symbol. Susan G. Komen for the Cure uses a stylized "running ribbon" as their logo. [27]

Gender reveal accessories

A cake with a pink middle layer indicating a baby girl "Gender reveal" cake cut open.jpg
A cake with a pink middle layer indicating a baby girl

Gender reveal parties use props or accessories of various kinds to reveal to invited guests the sex of an expectant mother's baby before it is born. Props include cakes, balloons, confetti, smoke, fireworks, and other accessories [28] to indicate whether the fetus is male or female, normally by means of a colored signal that is pink or blue. [29] For example: a cake may be brought out, frosted in white or other neutrally-colored icing, which when cut, reveals a pinkish or blueish filling inside, thus indicating that the baby is expected to be a girl (pink) or a boy (blue). [30] [31]

Transgender flag

The transgender flag features pink and blue. Transgender Pride flag.svg
The transgender flag features pink and blue.

The transgender pride flag features five horizontal stripes: light blue stripes on the top and bottom, light pink stripes in second and fourth positions, and a white stripe in the center. The flag's designer, Monica Helms, [32] describes the traditional associations of pink and blue as the reasons for the flag's colors. The blue stripes represent boys and men, the pink stripes represent girls and women, and the white stripe represents intersex, nonbinary, and gender-nonconforming people, and those still in transition. [33] [34]

Other

Even items that would seem to have no association with one gender or another, such as vitamin pills, have been produced in pink and blue and marketed towards girls and boys. [35] Société Bic drew criticism in 2012 for its pink and purple "Bic Cristal for Her" ballpoint pens. [36] In Russian, pink (розовый, rozovyj) is used to refer to lesbians, and light blue (голубой, goluboj) refers to gay men. [37]

Pink–blue reversal

In a 2017 letter to Archives of Sexual Behavior , researcher Marco Del Giudice commented on earlier claims about a supposed shift in pink–blue color associations or preferences sometime around the 1940s, from pink for boys and blue for girls before that period, to the opposite alignment afterward. He summarized his earlier work from 2012 which found "no evidence of either reversed or inconsistent usage prior to the 1940s". [38] Del Giudice called this theory the "Pink–blue reversal" (PBR), and said it was "usually attributed to [Jo] Paoletti", and quoted from five academic articles that reprised the theory of "pink is for boys" prior to the 1940s. However, he found upon analysis that it was exceptionally difficult to actually document such a shift, and exclaimed upon "the thinness of the evidence presented in support of the PBR". [39]

In his 2012 paper, Del Giudice quoted from four articles published in academic journals which all echoed the claims about PBR theory, many relying on Paoletti, including Chiu et al., 2006: "Prior to that decade, Paoletti ... noted that the sex-dimorphic color coding of pink and blue was inverted, i.e., infant boys were dressed in pink and infant girls were dressed in blue."; [40] Frassanito & Pettorini (2008): "At one point, pink was considered more of a boy's color ... blue was considered more for girls."; [41] Cohen (2013): "the current stereotypical American assignment of pink to girls and blue to boys was reversed a century ago"; [42] and Zucker (2005): "Yet, in the first two decades of the twentieth century, there is evidence that the gender-dimorphic nature of these two colors was inverted, that is, blue was judged to be stereotypically feminine whereas pink was judged to be stereotypically masculine." [43] [44] But Paoletti never made the claim that pink and blue reversed, only that there was inconsistent usage that took until the 1950s to resolve [39] starting from the first appearances of gendered pink and blue color associations around the 1860s. [4]

Academic research

A 2007 British study found a preference among women for reddish colors, and theorized that it might have had evolutionary advantages. [45] [46]

Studies of color preferences of infants and toddlers found a preference for primary colors, with no differences between boys and girls. By the age of two, girls started to prefer pink, and by four, boys started to reject it. This is around the same time as infants start to become aware of gender. [47]

In an attempt to test previous research indicating an apparent preference in Britain for blue-green hues among males and pink-purple among females, a 2018 cross-cultural study compared Indian and British students. Standardized personality tests were administered to determine links possible between personality traits, gender, and color. Results confirmed previous studies, showing similar gender differences across both culture groups, with females in both groups showing a preference for pink, in warmer shades for Indian women and cooler for British women. Authors reported "a remarkable cross-cultural similarity in men and a subtle but significant cultural difference in women whose origin is yet to be explained". [48]

Geneva Emotion Wheel Geneva Emotion Wheel - English.png
Geneva Emotion Wheel

Results of a cross-sectional study of color preferences among Swiss children and adults were published in 2018 in Sex Roles . The study found that blue was not a gendered color, but that pink is. Among children, blue was the favorite color of both girls and boys. There was a greater preference for pink/purple hues among girls, and a greater preference for red among boys. Among adults, no group chose pink as their favorite, blue was a common favorite among both, and women preferred red more than men did. A further study tested positive or negative emotional associations of pink, blue, and red among Swiss adults using the Geneva Emotion Wheel. All three hues were associated with positive emotions to the same extent among men and women. Where there were gender-based differences, pink was found to elicit more positive associations among women. [49]

Hadzabe dance, Tanzania Hadzabe Dance 2.jpg
Hadzabe dance, Tanzania

Most studies have taken place in western industrialized societies, and some evidence appeared to show a cross-cultural pattern. A 2019 study published in Perception was designed to test this hypothesis, and was conducted among a hunter-gatherer culture in Africa. The study found that the color preferences among the Hadza people in Tanzania differed from those of previous studies, and that their color preferences were the same for men and for women. The researchers concluded that their study called into question previous hypotheses that color preference might have an innate association with gender, and suggested that more studies would be needed to determine what the actual factors are in color preferences among the genders. [50]

Research questioning the color preferences of male and female children in regard to specific products is minimal; however, analysis of the research available implies that there are common color preferences among boys and girls in relation to their clothing choice. In a study conducted in Turkey, the aim was to identify which colors are preferred for which garment types by girls and boys, and whether or not the color preferences of children differ according to age, sex, and garment type. It was determined that the colors preferred most by most of the girls for all garment types were magenta, red-violet, red, and red-orange; similarly, the colors preferred by the boys for all garment types were black, blue, cyan, and yellow. [51] Despite the lack of cross cultural analysis on this topic, existing research indicates that children's clothing resides on a spectrum that has expectations which fluctuate depending on age, gender, location, class, and many more intersectional markers.

Reactions

Women wearing pussy hats 2017.01.20 Alaska Air Flight 6 in Pink LAX-DCA 00049 (31620242283).jpg
Women wearing pussy hats

The association of pink with little girls and their toys leads some to view pink for women as unserious or infantilizing. In a 2017 column in The Washington Post , columnist Petula Dvorak wrote about her fears that the Women's March scheduled for the day after the inauguration of President Trump in January 2017 would not be taken seriously, because of the proliferation of pink pussy hats being prepared for the occasion by women planning to attend. [52]

The same connection can be drawn between men and the potential for limitations associated with the color blue in western society. Oftentimes men are marketed clothing and products that are associated with their socially acceptable color scheme of various blues, greens, and dark tones; this is something that can be observed in advertising as well as store fronts. With this push for a connection between blue and masculinity, there can be instances of gender backlash which refers to social penalties directed at people who violate gender norms. [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink</span> Pale tint of red

Pink is the color of a namesake flower that is a pale tint of red. It was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity, and romance. A combination of pink and white is associated with innocence, whereas a combination of pink and black links to eroticism and seduction. In the 21st century, pink is seen as a symbol of femininity, though it has not always been seen this way. In the 1920s, light red, which is similar to pink, was seen as a color that reflected masculinity.

Gender neutrality, also known as gender-neutralism or the gender neutrality movement, is the idea that policies, language, and other social institutions should avoid distinguishing roles according to people's sex or gender. This is in order to avoid discrimination arising from the impression that there are social roles for which one gender is more suited than another. The disparity in gender equality throughout history has had a significant impact on many aspects of society, including marketing, toys, education and parenting techniques. In order to increase gender neutrality in recent years, there has been a societal emphasis on utilizing inclusive language and advocating for equality.

The pink ribbon is an international symbol of breast cancer awareness. Pink ribbons, and the color pink in general, identify the wearer or promoter with the breast cancer brand and express moral support for people with breast cancer. Pink ribbons are most commonly seen during National Breast Cancer Awareness Month.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Children's clothing</span> Clothing worn by children

Children's clothing or kids' clothing is clothing for children who have not yet grown to full height. Children's clothing is often more casual than adult clothing, fit for play and rest.

Childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) is a phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected gender-related sociological or psychological patterns, or identify with the opposite sex/gender. Typical behavior among those who exhibit the phenomenon includes but is not limited to a propensity to cross-dress, refusal to take part in activities conventionally thought suitable for the gender and the exclusive choice of play-mates of the opposite sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">My Child</span> Toy line from Mattel

My Child dolls are a toy made by Mattel from 1985-1988. Most had felt "skin" on their heads although some had vinyl skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast Cancer Awareness Month</span> Annual health campaign

Breast Cancer Awareness Month (BCAM), also referred to in the United States as National Breast Cancer Awareness Month (NBCAM), is an annual international health campaign organized by major breast cancer charities every October to increase awareness of the disease and raise funds for research into its cause, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and cure.

Color symbolism in art, literature, and anthropology is the use of color as a symbol in various cultures and in storytelling. There is great diversity in the use of colors and their associations between cultures and even within the same culture in different time periods. The same color may have very different associations within the same culture at any time. Diversity in color symbolism occurs because color meanings and symbolism occur on an individual, cultural and universal basis. Color symbolism is also context-dependent and influenced by changes over time. Symbolic representations of religious concepts or articles may include a specific color with which the concept or object is associated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Color psychology</span> Study of influence of color on human behavior

Color psychology is the study of colors and hues as a determinant of human behavior. Color influences perceptions that are not obvious, such as the taste of food. Colors have qualities that can cause certain emotions in people. How color influences individuals may differ depending on age, gender, and culture. Although color associations can vary contextually between cultures, color preference is thought to be relatively uniform across gender and race.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast cancer awareness</span> Effort to raise awareness and reduce the stigma of breast cancer

Breast cancer awareness is an effort to raise awareness and reduce the stigma of breast cancer through education about screening, symptoms, and treatment. Supporters hope that greater knowledge will lead to earlier detection of breast cancer, which is associated with higher long-term survival rates, and that money raised for breast cancer will produce a reliable, permanent cure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Girls' toys and games</span> Subset of toy and games that appeal to female children

Girls' toys and games are toys and games specifically targeted at girls by the toy industry. They may be traditionally associated either exclusively or primarily with girls by adults and used by girls as an expression of identity. One commentator have argued that the market for girl's toys and games is more challenging than that for boys' toys and games.

Pinkstinks is a campaign founded in London in May 2008 by twin sisters Emma Moore and Abi Moore to raise awareness of what they claim is damage caused by gender stereotyping of children. Pinkstinks claims that the marketing of gender-specific products to young children encourages girls to limit their ambitions later in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infant clothing</span> Clothing worn by infants

Infant clothing or baby clothing is clothing made for infants. Baby fashion is a social-cultural consumerist practice that encodes in children's fashion the representation of many social features and depicts a system characterized by differences in social class, richness, gender, or ethnicity.

Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, the environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Let Toys Be Toys</span> Advocacy campaign

Let Toys Be Toys is a campaign designed to persuade retailers to stop categorising toys by gender. It was started by a group of parents on the parenting on-line discussion forum Mumsnet.

A gender script is a concept in feminist studies that refers to structures or paths created by societal norms that one is supposed to follow based on the gender assigned to them at birth. The American Psychological Association defines gender script as "a temporally organized, gender-related sequence of events". Gender script is also closely related to the concept of gender roles. Gender scripts have been called a demonstration of the social construction of gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink tax</span> Higher pricing of products marketed to women

The pink tax refers to the tendency for products marketed specifically toward women to be more expensive than those marketed toward men. This phenomenon is often attributed to gender-based price discrimination, however research shows that the primary cause is women sorting into goods with higher marginal costs. The name stems from the observation that many of the affected products are pink.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Color of clothing</span> An essential aspect of the aesthetic properties of clothing

Color is an essential aspect of the aesthetic properties of clothing. The color of clothing has a significant impact on one's appearance. Our clothes communicate about us and reveal our social and economic standing.

<i>Pink and Blue: Telling the Boys from the Girls in America</i> 2012 book by Jo B. Paoletti

Pink and Blue: Telling the Boys from the Girls in America is a 2012 book by Jo B. Paoletti, published by Indiana University Press.

References

  1. 1 2 Maglaty 2011.
  2. 1 2 Schorman 2013, p. 622–623.
  3. ↑ Paoletti 2012, p. xviii.
  4. 1 2 Paoletti 2012, p. 89.
  5. ↑ "Fashions: Baby's Clothes", Time , 10: 20, 14 November 1927: Blue for boys: Bullock's, Franklin Simon, Macy's, Wanamaker's; Blue for girls: Best's, Filene's, Maison Blanche, Marshall Field's, The White House, Halle's
  6. ↑ Paoletti 2012, p. 91.
  7. 1 2 Blegvad 2019, p. 71.
  8. 1 2 Chrisman-Campbell 2020, PT271.
  9. ↑ Kueber 2009.
  10. ↑ Blegvad 2019, p. 73.
  11. ↑ Garnier 1823.
  12. ↑ Bayle-Mouillard 1834, p. 294.
  13. ↑ Kohl 1842, p. 131.
  14. ↑ Beeton 1862, p. 142.
  15. ↑ Rivadeneyra 1896, p. 561.
  16. ↑ Petersons 1856, p. 261.
  17. ↑ El Mundo 1899, p. 314.
  18. ↑ Paoletti 2012, p. xix.
  19. ↑ "Pink Shirt Day". Pink T-Shirt Day Society.
  20. ↑ "Pink Shirt Day". Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand.
  21. 1 2 "About | Pink Shirt Day". www.pinkshirtday.org.nz. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  22. ↑ "Day of Pink". Day of Pink. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
  23. ↑ "International Day of Pink". Western Financial Group. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  24. ↑ Conis 2021, p. 19.
  25. ↑ Sulik 2010, p. 124–125.
  26. ↑ Sulik 2010, p. 47–48.
  27. ↑ Sulik 2010, p. 147.
  28. ↑ Bologna 2018.
  29. ↑ Garcia-Navarro 2019.
  30. ↑ Pasche Guignard 2015, p. 479–500.
  31. ↑ Gieseler 2017, p. 661–671.
  32. ↑ Gray, Emma; Vagianos, Alanna (27 July 2017). "We Have A Navy Veteran To Thank For The Transgender Pride Flag". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
  33. ↑ "Here's the Meaning Behind the Colors of the Transgender Pride Flag". Seventeen . 30 May 2023. Archived from the original on 14 May 2024. Retrieved 13 May 2024.
  34. ↑ "The History of the Transgender Flag". 23 April 2015. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  35. ↑ Hendershot 1996, p. 99.
  36. ↑ London 2020.
  37. ↑ "Gay Rights in Russia and Russian Gay Life". 30 April 2009. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  38. ↑ Del Giudice 2017, p. 1556.
  39. 1 2 Del Giudice 2012, p. 1321.
  40. ↑ Chiu 2006, p. 385.
  41. ↑ Frassanito & Pettorini 2008, p. 881.
  42. ↑ Cohen 2013, p. 1.
  43. ↑ Zucker 2005, p. 3770.
  44. ↑ Quotations from Chiu (2006), Frassanito & Pettorini (2008), Cohen (2013), and Zucker (2005) are as cited in Del Giudice (2012) p. 1321
  45. ↑ Grisard 2019, p. 219.
  46. ↑ BBC 2007.
  47. ↑ Hammond 2014.
  48. ↑ Bonnardel et al. 2018, p. 209-223.
  49. ↑ Jonauskaite et al. 2019, p. 630–642.
  50. ↑ Groyecka et al. 2019, p. 428–36.
  51. ↑ Kilinç, Nurgül (1 November 2011). "Clothing Color Preferences of Boys and Girls Aged Between Six and Nine". Social Behavior and Personality. 39 (10): 1359–1366. doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.10.1359.
  52. ↑ Dvorak 2017.
  53. ↑ Ben-Zeev, Avi (2014). "When Boys Wear Pink: A Gendered Color Cue Violation Evokes Risk Taking". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 15 (4): 486–489. doi:10.1037/a0034683.

Works cited

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.