Label (sociology)

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A label is an abstract concept in sociology used to group people together based on perceived or held identity. Labels are a mode of identifying social groups. Labels can create a sense of community within groups, but they can also cause harm when used to separate individuals and groups from mainstream society. [1] Individuals may choose a label, or they may be assigned one by others. The act of labeling may affect an individual's behavior and their reactions to the social world. [1]

Contents

Symbolic interactionism and labeling theory both examine labels as a social concept, and emphasize the social weight of labels and labeling. Symbolic interactionism focuses on expectations of social roles, while labeling theory focuses on the social and individual consequences of labeling. Both theories link between labels and contexts and maintain that their meanings are socially defined rather than universal.

Usage

External labeling

A sign stating "Baby IV is a...girl!" It's a girl gender reveal sign.jpg
A sign stating “Baby IV is a…girl!”

Labels serve many functions in sociology. They group individuals with common characteristics, such as academic performance, gender, race, or adherence to law. [1] Labels are a product of their social context, and may not be applicable outside their context. [2] For example, a society without a formal legal system may not have the label “criminal,” as there can be no stigmatization of crime in a society without laws.

Labels are also be used to differentiate between groups for negative reasons. A label may be placed on someone to designate them as different from mainstream society. This can result in in-group favoritism and othering. [3] In-group favoritism occurs when individuals in one group (united by one label) favor members of their group above outsiders. [4] Othering is a specific form of labeling in which the label produces patterns of power and privilege by designating those who do not follow accepted social norms as lesser. [3] In some cases, othering can cause social exclusion, in which case groups labeled as "other" are denied full participation in society. [5] Labels have been used to alienate groups and justify unequal power dynamics, which can harm the individual experiencing exclusion and alienation. [6]

Some may rely on the use of stereotypes to assign labels. Unlike neutral categorization, stereotyping relies on power imbalances to reduce differences between individuals and groups to exaggerated characteristics. [7] Although stereotypes may have no factual basis, they may alter an individual's behavior if consistently applied. [8] Sociologist Robert K. Merton named this effect “self-fulfilling prophecy” to explain the change he observed. Both positive and negative labels may create a case of self-fulfilling prophecy. [1] [8] While the application of negative labels may cause discrimination and stigmatization, applying positive labels can also have negative effects on individuals like high expectations and discrimination. [7] American sociologist Howard S. Becker emphasized that labels and labeling are not the sole factors in behavior, and must be considered among other factors. [2] Becker claimed that certain labels may increase one's likelihood of aligning with expected behavior, but they do not fully predict action. [2]

Internal Labeling

A member of a women's march holds up a sign reading "this is what a feminist looks like" to frame their face. Seattle Women's March Jan 2018 (28140027269).jpg
A member of a women's march holds up a sign reading “this is what a feminist looks like” to frame their face.

Individuals may choose a label to describe a certain aspect of themselves, and these labels may change over time. Labels can describe a certain facet of one's personality, or they may highlight certain achievements. Labeling one's self can amplify the role of the described behavior in their life, influencing them to conform to behaviors that are expected by those who are in the labeled group. [1] Despite groups holding many positive qualities, others may perceive positive traits of a group to be inferior. [9] This in turn can strengthen the group's association with their label and the actions and behaviors associated with them. [9] Individuals can bond over shared interests and characteristics, leading to a sense of connection and community.

Labels are not restricted to changeable aspects of one's self, but may be used to describe foundational aspects of one's identity, including race, gender, and sexuality. Communities that share labels may have similar experiences that bind individuals to a group identity. [2] [10] Groups may also choose to label themselves in order to separate themselves from mainstream society, setting themselves apart as superior to those who follow the norm. [11] Labels may function not only to say what a group is, but to say what the group is not. George Herbert Mead explained that positioning a group in opposition to a common enemy is “the easiest way of getting together.” [11] He further claims that values are strengthened and validated when aligned with the values of a group. [11] Groups can be united in many ways, including shared experiences, common identity, shared values, or a common enemy.

Theory

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that examines the role of symbols in communication and interaction. [8] Symbolic interactionism is mainly concerned with smaller groups and interactions between individuals. [8] This theory looks at the construction of symbolic meanings and their use in social contexts. A symbol can be anything from a picture to a word, to a common set of values. [8] Social roles hold symbolic meaning and can define what expectations are placed on individuals. The concept of social roles are closely tied to the concept of labels. Social roles come with expected behaviors that can help situate people in unfamiliar contexts by providing a framework they can use to interpret the meanings behind actions. [11] For example, offering a tip to a waiter in a restaurant has a different symbolic meaning as offering a tip to an airline worker. Social context determines whether an action is normative or irregular. Symbolic interactionism and its examination of social roles is the theoretical basis for labeling theory. [12] Symbolic interactionism preceded the creation of labeling theory, which drew heavily upon the work of symbolic interactionism. [12]

Labeling theory

Labeling theory is a sociological theory that claims labels have a profound impact on individuals. Labeling theory is closely connected with criminology, and examines conceptualizations of deviance. While labeling theory is not singularly focused on the study of crime, it uses "deviance" and “the criminal” to explain the effect of labels. [2] Other labels are commonly researched under this theory, including “homosexual” and “mentally ill.” Labeling theory emphasizes that labels do not necessarily represent inherent truths, but actions and behaviors that are responses to social constructions. [2] [12] “Deviance” is not a descriptor of a person, but the actions of an individual that defy social expectation. [2] When individuals act in ways that defy their social roles, they may be labeled deviant. Becker maintains that the act is labeled as deviant, not the individual. [2] When labels are tied to the individual, labeling theory claims that labels develop codes of morality that spur negative stereotypes and stigma. [8] This theory presents labels and their social context as holding power and influence over lives, behavior, and relationships. [12]

See Also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert K. Merton</span> American sociologist (1910–2003)

Robert King Merton was an American sociologist who is considered a founding father of modern sociology, and a major contributor to the subfield of criminology. He served as the 47th President of the American Sociological Association. He spent most of his career teaching at Columbia University, where he attained the rank of University Professor. In 1994 he was awarded the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the field and for having founded the sociology of science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Symbolic interactionism</span> Sociological theory focused on cultural symbols exchanged during interpersonal interactions

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. According to Macionis, symbolic interactionism is "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals". In other words, it is a frame of reference to better understand how individuals interact with one another to create symbolic worlds, and in return, how these worlds shape individual behaviors. It is a framework that helps understand how society is preserved and created through repeated interactions between individuals. The interpretation process that occurs between interactions helps create and recreate meaning. It is the shared understanding and interpretations of meaning that affect the interaction between individuals. Individuals act on the premise of a shared understanding of meaning within their social context. Thus, interaction and behavior is framed through the shared meaning that objects and concepts have attached to them. From this view, people live in both natural and symbolic environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interactionism</span>

In micro-sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that sees social behavior as an interactive product of the individual and the situation. In other words, it derives social processes from social interaction, whereby subjectively held meanings are integral to explaining or understanding social behavior.

Role theory is a concept in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting-out of socially defined categories. Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms, and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and that an individual's behavior is context specific, based on social position and other factors. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory.

In-group favoritism, sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias, in-group bias, intergroup bias, or in-group preference, is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways.

Ascribed status is a term used in sociology that refers to the social status of a person that is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. The status is a position that is neither earned by the person nor chosen for them. Rather, the ascribed status is assigned based on social and cultural expectations, norms, and standards. These positions are occupied regardless of efforts or desire. These rigid social designators remain fixed throughout an individual's life and are inseparable from the positive or negative stereotypes that are linked with one's ascribed statuses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Index of sociology articles</span>

This is an index of sociology articles. For a shorter list, see List of basic sociology topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labeling theory</span> Labeling people changes their behavior

Labeling theory posits that self-identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. The theory was prominent during the 1960s and 1970s, and some modified versions of the theory have developed and are still currently popular. Stigma is defined as a powerfully negative label that changes a person's self-concept and social identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Howard S. Becker</span> American sociologist

Howard Saul Becker is an American sociologist who teaches at Northwestern University. Becker has made contributions to the sociology of deviance, sociology of art, and sociology of music. Becker also wrote extensively on sociological writing styles and methodologies. Becker's 1963 book Outsiders provided the foundations for labeling theory. Becker is often called a symbolic interactionist or social constructionist, although he does not align himself with either method. A graduate of the University of Chicago, Becker is considered part of the second Chicago School of Sociology, which also includes Erving Goffman and Anselm Strauss.

The Thomas theorem is a theory of sociology which was formulated in 1928 by William Isaac Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas:

If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.

Social stigma is the disapproval of, or discrimination against, an individual or group based on perceived characteristics that serve to distinguish them from other members of a society. Social stigmas are commonly related to culture, gender, race, socioeconomic class, age, sexual orientation, body image, physical disability, intelligence or lack thereof, and health. Some stigma may be obvious, while others are known as concealable stigmas that must be revealed through disclosure. Stigma can also be against oneself, stemming from negatively viewed personal attributes in a way that can result in a "spoiled identity".

From a sociological perspective, deviance is defined as the violation or drift from the accepted social norms.

Primary Deviance is the initial stage in defining deviant behavior. Prominent Sociologist Edwin Lemert conceptualized primary deviance as engaging in the initial act of deviance. This is very common throughout society, as everyone takes part in basic form violation. Primary deviance does not result in a person internalizing a deviant identity, so one does not alter their self-concept to include this deviant identity. It is not until the act becomes labeled or tagged, that secondary deviation may materialize. According to Edwin Lemert, Primary Deviance is the acts that are carried out by the individual that allows them to carry the deviant label.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociological theory</span> Theory advanced by social scientists to explain facts about the social world

A sociological theory is a supposition that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain objects of social reality from a sociological perspective, drawing connections between individual concepts in order to organize and substantiate sociological knowledge. Hence, such knowledge is composed of complex theoretical frameworks and methodology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social psychology (sociology)</span>

In sociology, social psychology studies the relationship between the individual and society. Although studying many of the same substantive topics as its counterpart in the field of psychology, sociological social psychology places relatively more emphasis on the influence of social structure and culture on individual outcomes, such as personality, behavior, and one's position in social hierarchies. Researchers broadly focus on higher levels of analysis, directing attention mainly to groups and the arrangement of relationships among people. This subfield of sociology is broadly recognized as having three major perspectives: Symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality, and structural social psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociology of terrorism</span> Academic field that seeks to understand terrorism

Sociology of terrorism is a field of sociology that seeks to understand terrorism as a social phenomenon. The field defines terrorism, studies why it occurs and evaluates its impacts on society. The sociology of terrorism draws from the fields of political science, history, economics and psychology. The sociology of terrorism differs from critical terrorism studies, emphasizing the social conditions that enable terrorism. It also studies how individuals as well as states respond to such events.

A moral entrepreneur is an individual, group, or formal organization that seeks to influence a group to adopt or maintain a norm; altering the boundaries of altruism, deviance, duty, or compassion.


Social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deviance (sociology)</span> Action or behavior that violates social norms

Deviance or the sociology of deviance explores the actions and/or behaviors that violate social norms across formally enacted rules as well as informal violations of social norms. Although deviance may have a negative connotation, the violation of social norms is not always a negative action; positive deviation exists in some situations. Although a norm is violated, a behavior can still be classified as positive or acceptable.

Angst und Vorurteil: AIDS-Ängste als Gegenstand der Vorurteilsforschung is a sociology book written by German sociologist, ethnologist, and sexologist Gisela Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg that was first published in 1989.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Manza, Jeff (2018). The Sociology Project: Introducing the Sociological Imagination. Don Mills, Ontario: Pearson Education. pp. 108–109, 457–458. ISBN   978-0133768916.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Becker, Howard S. (2018). Outsiders. New York: Free Press. pp. 1–7, 34–37, 170–171. ISBN   978-1-9821-0622-5.
  3. 1 2 Krumer-Nevo, Michal; Sidi, Mirit (April 2012). "Writing Against Othering". Qualitative Inquiry. 18 (4): 299–309. doi:10.1177/1077800411433546. ISSN   1077-8004. S2CID   145586082.
  4. ↑ Taylor, Donald M.; Doria, Janet R. (1981). "Self-Serving and Group-Serving Bias in Attribution". The Journal of Social Psychology. 113 (2): 201–211. doi:10.1080/00224545.1981.9924371.
  5. ↑ Modood, Tariq; Thompson, Simon (2021-01-30). "Othering, Alienation and Establishment". Political Studies. 70 (3): 780–796. doi: 10.1177/0032321720986698 . ISSN   0032-3217. S2CID   234017458.
  6. ↑ Rudert, Selma C.; Greifeneder, Rainer (2016). "When It's Okay That I Don't Play: Social Norms and the Situated Construal of Social Exclusion". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 42 (7): 955–969. doi:10.1177/0146167216649606. ISSN   0146-1672. PMID   27229676. S2CID   5874637.
  7. 1 2 Hobbs, Margaret; Rice, Carla, eds. (2013). Gender and women's studies in Canada : critical terrain. Toronto: Women's Press. pp. 228–230. ISBN   978-0-88961-484-0. OCLC   816764228.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kendall, Diana Elizabeth; Murray, Jane Lothian; Linden, Rick (2007). Sociology in our times (4th Canadian ed.). Canada: Thomson Nelson. pp. 24–25, 196–199, 511–512. ISBN   978-0-17-640668-4. OCLC   62267083.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. 1 2 Merton, Robert K. (1948). "The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy". The Antioch Review. 8 (2): 193–210. doi:10.2307/4609267. ISSN   0003-5769. JSTOR   4609267.
  10. ↑ Copulsky, Daniel; Hammack, Phillip L. (2021-12-17). "Asexuality, Graysexuality, and Demisexuality: Distinctions in Desire, Behavior, and Identity". The Journal of Sex Research. 60 (2): 221–230. doi:10.1080/00224499.2021.2012113. ISSN   0022-4499. PMID   34919461. S2CID   245317160.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Mead, George Herbert (1934). Mind, self & society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Charles W. Morris. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. pp. 45–48, 204–208, 214–215. ISBN   0-226-51667-9. OCLC   1499299.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Jones, Pip; Bradbury, Liz (2018). Introducing Social Theory (Third ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press. pp. 106–114. ISBN   978-1-5095-0504-3.
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