Sociology of the body

Last updated January 06, 2024

Sociology of the body is a branch of sociology studying the representations and social uses of the human body in modern societies.

Early theories

According to Thomas Laqueur,^[1] prior to the eighteenth century the predominant model for a social understanding of the body was the "one sex model/one flesh model". It followed that there was one model of the body which differed between the sexes and races, for example, the vagina was simply seen as a weaker version of the penis and even thought to emit sperm.

This was changed by the Enlightenment. In the sixteenth century, Europe began to participate in the slave trade and in order to justify this a large quantity of literature was produced showing the deviant sexuality and savagery of the African (Fanon, 1976). In the eighteenth century, the ideas of egalitarianism and universal and inalienable rights were becoming the intellectual norm. However, they could not justify the subordination of women within this theory.

To explain these the biology of incommensurability was created. This essentially claimed that different sexes and races were better adjusted for different tasks and could therefore show the necessity of discrimination and subordination. For example, craniometry was used to show people of African descent to be less evolved than those of European descent (Gould, 1981).

This was also combined with the technological developments which were taking place, leading to people seeing the body as a machine and therefore understandable, classifiable and repairable, one of the first examples of this was the work of William Harvey in the early seventeenth century.

Another early key area of development was the Cartesian Dichotomy. This saw the mind and the body as separated and led to the principle of interaction between the two being an accepted theory on the body until the development of the Structuralist approach in the twentieth century.

The importance of studying the body

Especially important within the sociology of the body tradition is the sociology of health and illness. This is because illness may obviously reduce the level of normal functioning of the body. Also, increasingly people in society believe that illness is prevented by fulfilling activities leading to a healthy body (thus changing one's lifestyle) such as dieting and exercise, as well as avoiding anything that can cause damage to the body, like smoking. Moreover, medical science is now able to alter our bodies through plastic surgery, transplanting organs, reproductive aids and even change in an unborn baby's genetic structure.^[2] 1

Historical physical practices

Many researchers have worked on this topic in France. The first was probably Jean-Marie Brohm, writing a book titled Body and Politics in 1974 (Delarge), followed by numerous authors. Georges Vigarello wrote Le Corps redressé, in 1978, Christian Pociello Sports et Société in 1981, André Rauch Le souci du corps in 1983, Jacques Gleyse (fr) Archéologie de l'Education physique au XXe siècle en France, in 1995 and L'Instrumentalisation du corps, in 1997. He is specially working on the topic of links between words and flesh.^[3] Various journals are publishing papers in this domain in France: STAPS International Journal of Sport Science and Physical Education, Corps & Culture, and Corps

Body image and related disorders

Sociology of the body has become deeply affected by society and the way in which society views one another, which in turn results in the way in which people, as individuals, view themselves. At one end of the spectrum, there are eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and body dysmorphic disorder, and on the other end, there is a growing epidemic of obesity, especially in the US. Both ideals have increased widely over the last few decades due in part to growing mass media coverage in which there are norms within society and the always growing pressure to either look and feel a certain way.

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder marked by the refusal to maintain a healthy weight due to the intense fear of weight gain, with the disturbance in perception of the individuals body shape and weight. This disorder is shown in severely underweight individuals who engage in purging, which includes self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or diuretics, or preferring enemas. People who have anorexia nervosa often think about food/have an appetite however the fear of weight gain dominates the want for food leaving them starving. If these individuals do eat, they search for low calorie foods and also engage in excessive exercise.^[4]
Bulimia nervosa is marked by binge-eating, inappropriate methods to prevent weight gain with negative self-evaluation about body shape and weight. Binge-eating is eating a certain amount of food in a limited amount of time, that is typically too much for most people to eat in one sitting. This happens mostly in private and is triggered by low self-esteem, stress, and depression. After these binge-eating episodes, people purge (self-induced vomiting). People with this disorder are overweight or have a normal body weight.^[4]
Binge eating disorder is similar to bulimia nervosa in the way that people engage in binge-eating episodes, however they do not purge after as patients with bulimia nervosa do. ^[4]
Body dysmorphic disorder is an obsessive-compulsive related disorder in which a person is constantly thinking negatively about one's body and engaging in repetitive behaviors to compare themselves to others. These thoughts and behaviors are unwanted, time consuming, and intrusive causing significant stress. This disorder affects men and women, typically starting in adolescents/ teenage years. This disorder may cause an individual to avoid social scenes and isolate themselves from others. People with this disorder often seek treatment such as surgery or skin treatments to approve their appearance. ^[5]
All of these disorders are rooted in feelings of shame and desire to have control over one's body (Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr 2009).^[6] The individual feels inadequate and imperfect. They may have anxieties about how others perceive them which becomes a focus on feelings about their body. (Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr 2009).^[6]
Obesity is defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health, according to the World Health Organization. With a BMI ( body mass index) of over 25 is considered overweight, and 30 plus is considered obese. According to the global burden of disease, obesity has now become an epidemic with 4 million people dying each year with obesity being the cause in 2017. ^[7]
Reasons thought to be behind obesity vary widely and are often debated. Some believe it has to do with the "population being a statistical artifact, some believe that childhood obesity is due to compositional factors, and then others believe that the problems are due to something called an "obesogenic environment"." Sociologists are perplexed mostly in the persistence of negative attitudes towards overweight and obese individuals.
From the sociological perspective the interactions that have been seen to show up between society and that of obese individuals is that persons of obesity are more likely to experience employment discrimination, discrimination by health care providers, and the daily experience of teasing, insult, and shame (Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr 2009).^[6]

Related Research Articles

An eating disorder is a mental disorder defined by abnormal eating behaviors that negatively affect a person's physical or mental health. Types of eating disorders include binge eating disorder, where the patient eats a large amount in a short period of time; anorexia nervosa, where the person has an intense fear of gaining weight and restricts food or overexercises to manage this fear; bulimia nervosa, where individuals eat a large quantity (binging) then try to rid themselves of the food (purging); pica, where the patient eats non-food items; rumination syndrome, where the patient regurgitates undigested or minimally digested food; avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), where people have a reduced or selective food intake due to some psychological reasons; and a group of other specified feeding or eating disorders. Anxiety disorders, depression and substance abuse are common among people with eating disorders. These disorders do not include obesity. People often experience comorbidity between an eating disorder and OCD. It is estimated 20–60% of patients with an ED have a history of OCD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulimia nervosa</span> Type of eating disorder

Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. This activity aims to expel the body of calories eaten from the binging phase of the process. Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time. Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed. This may be done by vomiting or taking laxatives.

Appetite is the desire to eat food items, usually due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as approach behaviour, and consummatory behaviour, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed, appetite levels may increase and result in an increase of food intake. Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia is increased eating. Dysregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, cachexia, overeating, and binge eating disorder.

Binge eating disorder (BED) is an eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent binge eating episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without the compensatory behaviors common to bulimia nervosa, OSFED, or the binge-purge subtype of anorexia nervosa.

Binge eating is a pattern of disordered eating which consists of episodes of uncontrollable eating. It is a common symptom of eating disorders such as binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. During such binges, a person rapidly consumes an excessive quantity of food. A diagnosis of binge eating is associated with feelings of loss of control. Binge eating disorder is also linked with being overweight and obesity.

A food addiction or eating addiction is any behavioral addiction that is primarily characterized by the compulsive consumption of palatable food items which markedly activate the reward system in humans and other animals despite adverse consequences.

The Eating Attitudes Test, created by David Garner, is a widely used 26-item, standardized self-reported questionnaire of symptoms and concerns characteristic of eating disorders. The EAT is useful in assessing "eating disorder risk" in high school, college and other special risk samples such as athletes. EAT has been extremely effective in screening for anorexia nervosa in many populations.

Purging disorder is an eating disorder characterized by the DSM-5 as self-induced vomiting, or misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas to forcefully evacuate matter from the body. Purging disorder differs from bulimia nervosa (BN) because individuals do not consume a large amount of food before they purge. In current diagnostic systems, purging disorder is a form of other specified feeding or eating disorder. Research indicates that purging disorder, while not rare, is not as commonly found as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. This syndrome is associated with clinically significant levels of distress, and that it appears to be distinct from bulimia nervosa on measures of hunger and ability to control food intake. Some of the signs of purging disorder are frequent trips to the bathroom directly after a meal, frequent use of laxatives, and obsession over one's appearance and weight. Other signs include swollen cheeks, popped blood vessels in the eyes, and clear teeth which are all signs of excessive vomiting.

The sociology of food is the study of food as it relates to the history, progression, and future development of society, encompassing its production, preparation, consumption, and distribution, its medical, ritual, spiritual, ethical and cultural applications, and related environmental and labor issues.

The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is a self-report questionnaire used to assess the presence of eating disorders, (a) anorexia nervosa both restricting and binge-eating/purging type; (b) bulimia nervosa; and (c) eating disorder not otherwise specified including binge eating disorder. The original questionnaire consisted of 64 questions, divided into eight subscales. It was created in 1984 by David M. Garner and others. There have been two subsequent revisions by Garner: the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2) and the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 (EDI-3).

Anorexia nervosa (AN), often referred to simply as anorexia, is an eating disorder characterized by low weight, food restriction, body image disturbance, fear of gaining weight, and an overpowering desire to be thin.

The differential diagnoses of anorexia nervosa (AN) includes various types of medical and psychological conditions, which may be misdiagnosed as AN. In some cases, these conditions may be comorbid with AN because the misdiagnosis of AN is not uncommon. For example, a case of achalasia was misdiagnosed as AN and the patient spent two months confined to a psychiatric hospital. A reason for the differential diagnoses that surround AN arise mainly because, like other disorders, it is primarily, albeit defensively and adaptive for, the individual concerned. Anorexia Nervosa is a psychological disorder characterized by extremely reduced intake of food. People with anorexia nervosa have a low self-image and consider themselves overweight.

The term weight phobia might refer or relate to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eating disorders and memory</span> Memory impairments linked to eating disorders

Many memory impairments exist as a result from or cause of eating disorders. Eating disorders (EDs) are characterized by abnormal and disturbed eating patterns that affect the lives of the individuals who worry about their weight to the extreme. These abnormal eating patterns involve either inadequate or excessive food intake, affecting the individual's physical and mental health.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is derived from both the cognitive and behavioral schools of psychology and focuses on the alteration of thoughts and actions with the goal of treating various disorders. The cognitive behavioral treatment of eating disorders emphasizes on the minimization of negative thoughts about body image and the act of eating, and attempts to alter negative and harmful behaviors that are involved in and perpetuate eating disorders. It also encourages the ability to tolerate negative thoughts and feelings as well as the ability to think about food and body perception in a multi-dimensional way. The emphasis is not only placed on altering cognition, but also on tangible practices like making goals and being rewarded for meeting those goals. CBT is a "time-limited and focused approach" which means that it is important for the patients of this type of therapy to have particular issues that they want to address when they begin treatment. CBT has also proven to be one of the most effective treatments for eating disorders.

Drunkorexia is a colloquialism for anorexia or bulimia combined with an alcohol use disorder. The term is generally used to denote the utilization of extreme weight control methods to compensate for planned binge drinking. Research on the combination of an eating disorder and binge drinking has primarily focused on college-aged women, though the phenomenon has also been noted among young men. Studies suggest that individuals engage in this combination of self-imposed malnutrition and binge drinking to avoid weight gain from alcohol, to save money for purchasing alcohol, and to facilitate alcohol intoxication.

Other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) is a subclinical DSM-5 category that, along with unspecified feeding or eating disorder (UFED), replaces the category formerly called eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) in the DSM-IV-TR. It captures feeding disorders and eating disorders of clinical severity that do not meet diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), pica, or rumination disorder. OSFED includes five examples:

Paul E. Garfinkel is a Canadian psychiatrist, researcher and an academic leader. He is a professor at the University of Toronto and a staff psychiatrist at Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH).

Body image disturbance (BID) is a common symptom in patients with eating disorders and is characterized by an altered perception of one's own body.

Body checking is a compulsive behaviour related but not exclusive to various forms of body dysmorphic disorders. It involves frequently collecting various information about one’s own body in terms of size, shape, appearance or weight. Frequent expressions of this form of behaviour entails for example mirror checking, trying to feel one’s own bones, pinching the abdomen, frequent body weight measurement and comparing your own body to that of others. Studies have shown that an increased rate of body checking correlates with an overall increased dissatisfaction with the own body.

References

↑ Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender From the Greeks to Freud (Massachusetts , Harvard University Press, 1999)
↑ Nettleton (2006), The Sociology of Health and Illness, Second Edition, Cambridge: Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-2828-8, p. 104
↑ ""The flesh" and "the word" : Thought or spirit, a question to be examined". Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
1 2 3 Guarda, Angela (February 2023). "What Are Eating Disorders?". American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved October 28, 2023.
↑ Phillips, Kathryn (October 31, 2019). "Body Dysmorphic Disorder And a Culture of Perfection". American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved October 28, 2023.
1 2 3 Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr. (2009). Introduction to Sociology, Seventh Edition. New York, London: W. W. Norton. Pg. 566-572.
↑ "Obesity". World Health Organization. 2023. Retrieved October 28, 2023.

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[1] Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender From the Greeks to Freud (Massachusetts , Harvard University Press, 1999)

[2] Nettleton (2006), The Sociology of Health and Illness, Second Edition, Cambridge: Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-2828-8, p. 104

[3] ""The flesh" and "the word" : Thought or spirit, a question to be examined". Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-08-25.

[:0-4] 1 2 3 Guarda, Angela (February 2023). "What Are Eating Disorders?". American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved October 28, 2023.

[5] Phillips, Kathryn (October 31, 2019). "Body Dysmorphic Disorder And a Culture of Perfection". American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved October 28, 2023.

[autogenerated1-6] 1 2 3 Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr. (2009). Introduction to Sociology, Seventh Edition. New York, London: W. W. Norton. Pg. 566-572.

[7] "Obesity". World Health Organization. 2023. Retrieved October 28, 2023.

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