Social experiment

Last updated

A social experiment is a method of psychological or sociological research that observes people's reactions to certain situations or events. The experiment depends on a particular social approach where the main source of information is the participants' point of view and knowledge. To carry out a social experiment, specialists usually split participants into two groups — active participants (people who take action in particular events) and respondents (people who react to the action). Throughout the experiment, specialists monitor participants to identify the effects and differences resulting from the experiment. A conclusion is then created based on the results. Intentional communities are generally considered social experiments. [1]

Social psychology offers insight into how individuals act in groups and how behavior is affected by social burdens and pressures. [2] In most social experiments, the subjects are unaware that they are partaking in an experiment as to prevent bias; however, this may bring ethical issues (see ethics section). Several "actors" or "plants" are used to study social behaviors. Companies have also used social experiments to collect consumer data and their opinions about a product or a particular topic. [3]

History

In 1895, [4] American psychologist Norman Triplett constructed one of the earliest known social experiments, in which he found out that cyclists managed to ride a bike faster when racing against another person rather than racing against the clock. Norman found similar results, through another experiment, where he asked children to turn fishing reels both alone and with other children present. [5] Field social experiments had proved to be efficient as they reflect real life due to their natural setting. [6]

The social experiments commonly referred to today were conducted decades later, in which an experiment is done in a controlled environment such as a laboratory. An example of this is Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment in 1963. [7] Social experiments began in the United States as a test of the negative income tax concept in the late 1960s and since then have been conducted on all the populated continents. [8] [ page needed ]

During the 1970s, criticism of the ethics and accusations of gender and racial bias led to a reassessment of both the field of social psychology and the conducted experiments. While experimental methods were still employed, other methods gained popularity. [9]

Ethics

Social experimentation has raised many ethical concerns, due to its manipulation of large population groups, often without the consent or knowledge of the subjects. [10] In some instances, social experimentation has been staged unknowingly to the viewer to promote the image of the individual or for the pure purpose of generating controversy. [11]

Researchers also believed that the impact of Informal Social Experiments via social media videos may have negative consequences on formal social marketing research as well as the society in general, [12] detailing that while Informal Social Experiments address moral and social issues such as child safety, self-confidence, etc., producers of these social experiments might do it for their gain and benefits. [12]

Well-known social experiments

Bystander apathy (effect)

Based on the murder of Kitty Genovese outside her home, The New York Times stated that there were 38 witnesses who either saw or heard the fatal stabbing take place, and not a single person came to her aid. Although this number was proven to be exaggerated, this murder was coined "bystander apathy" by social psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley in 1968. [13]

For their experiment, Latané and Darley [13] tried to replicate the Genovese slaying by having participants aware of each other but unable to communicate directly. Each participant was in a cubicle in contact with the other via a microphone; however, only one voice was allowed to speak at a time. A taped recording was played of a participant having an epileptic seizure. When the participant believed themselves to be alone they invariably attempted to find help. When the participant believed others were around the speed and frequency of response declined significantly. The authors concluded that situational factors play an influential role in bystander apathy. People are less likely to help in an emergency if other people are present. Two reasons were offered by Latané and Darley: first is the diffusion of responsibility, and second is pluralistic ignorance or the mentality that if nobody else is helping, then I am not needed as well.

Research on bystander apathy by psychologist Kyle Thomas et al. found that people's decisions to help are influenced by their level of knowledge. While the diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance are factors, the researchers found that bystanders also consider what they know about other bystanders and the situation before getting involved. [14] [15]

HighScope

The HighScope Perry Preschool Project was evaluated in a randomized controlled trial of 123 children (58 were randomly assigned to a treatment group that received the program and a control group of 65 children that did not receive the program). [16] Prior to the program, the preschool and control groups were equivalent in measures of intellectual performance and demographic characteristics. After the program, the educational and life outcomes for the children receiving the program were much superior to the outcomes for the children not receiving the program. Many of the program effects were significant or approaching significance. [17] [18] At age 40, the participants were interviewed once more, and school, social services, and arrest records were pulled. The participants had higher-earning jobs, committed fewer crimes, and were more likely to hold a job than adults who did not attend preschool.

RAND Health Insurance Experiment

The RAND Health Insurance Experiment was an experimental study of health care costs, utilization, and outcomes in the United States which assigned people randomly to different kinds of plans and followed their behavior from 1974 to 1982. [19] As a result, it provided stronger evidence than studies that examine people afterward who were not randomly assigned. It concluded that cost-sharing reduced "inappropriate or unnecessary" medical care (over-utilization), but also reduced "appropriate or needed" medical care. It did not have enough statistical power to tell whether people who got less appropriate or needed care were more likely to die as a result.

Oportunidades/Prospera/Progresa

Oportunidades is a government social assistance (welfare) program in Mexico founded in 2002, based on a previous program called Progresa created in 1997. [20] It is designed to target poverty by providing cash payments to families in exchange for regular school attendance, health clinic visits, and nutrition support. [21] Oportunidades is credited with decreasing poverty and improving health and educational attainment in regions where it has been deployed. [22]

Moving to Opportunity

Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing was a randomized social experiment sponsored by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development in the 1990s among 4600 low-income families with children living in high-poverty public housing projects. [23] The program was designed based on the assumption that households benefit from living in higher-opportunity neighborhoods. Early evaluations of the MTO program, however, showed minimal gains for participant families. One explanation for these findings is the short length of time that MTO families typically spent in lower-poverty neighborhoods; the positive effects of longer-term exposure to low-poverty neighborhoods appear more promising. [24]

Stanford prison experiment

The Stanford prison experiment was a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted at Stanford University on 14–20 August 1971, by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students. [25] It was funded by the U.S. Office of Naval Research [26] and was of interest to both the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps as an investigation into the causes of conflict between military guards and prisoners. The experiment is a study on the psychology of imprisonment [27] and is a topic covered in most introductory psychology textbooks. [28]

Experiments by Muzafer Sherif

Sherif was a founder of modern social psychology who developed several techniques for understanding social processes, particularly social norms, and social conflict. Sherif's experimental study of the auto-kinetic movement demonstrated how mental evaluation norms were created by human beings. [29] Sherif is equally famous for the Robbers Cave Experiments. This series of experiments, begun in Connecticut and concluded in Oklahoma, took boys from intact middle-class families, who were carefully screened to be psychologically normal, delivered them to a summer camp setting (with researchers doubling as counselors), and created social groups that came into conflict with each other.

Bobo doll experiment

The Bobo doll experiment was a study carried out by Albert Bandura who was a professor at Stanford University. It focused on the study of aggression using three groups of preschoolers as the subjects. Bandura took inflatable plastic toys called Bobo dolls and weighted them down to always stand upright. The preschoolers were divided into three groups by gender, and then into six subgroups. One of the groups would observe an adult act aggressively towards the Bobo doll, another group would observe an adult with non-aggressive behaviors, and the last group would not be exposed to any behavior models. The study found the preschoolers exposed to aggressive behavior had imitated aggressiveness towards the doll, regardless of gender. The other two groups showed significantly less hostility towards the doll. The study had shown aggressive and non-aggressive behaviors were learned by observing others and had a significant effect on the subjects even after the study was concluded. [30]

Stanford marshmallow experiment

The Stanford marshmallow experiment was a study conducted by psychologist Walter Mischel on delayed gratification in the early 1970s. During the three studies, a child was offered a choice between one small reward provided immediately or two small rewards if they waited for a short period, approximately 15 minutes, during which the tester left the room and then returned. (The reward was sometimes a marshmallow, but often a cookie or a pretzel.) In follow-up studies, the researchers found that children who were able to wait longer for the preferred rewards tended to have better life outcomes, as measured by SAT scores, educational attainment, body mass index (BMI), and other life measures. [31] [32]

Asch conformity experiment

The Asch experiment took place at Swarthmore College in 1951. Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. [33] Asch took 50 people from the college to participate in a vision test. They were paired up with 7 other people who they believed to be random, but instead were part of a control group who would choose the same answers. The real participant would give his or her answers last. Out of the 18 trials, the group gave the wrong answers 12 times. 75% of the participants conformed once or more, and the remaining 25% never conformed to the group's wrong answers. Participants were interviewed after the experiment, and although they knew the answers were wrong, they conformed to not be ridiculed by the group. A few individuals said they thought the group's answers were correct. Asch concluded that people conformed because they either wanted to fit in or thought the group was right. [34]

Hawthorne experiment

The Hawthorne experiment took place in 1924 in the city of Chicago. Elton Mayo is widely known as the person behind the project. However, his involvement started in 1928 after he was invited by George Pennock, the assistant works manager for the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric. During the experiment, workers were separated into two groups to study the effects of different incentives on their productivity. Different variations were tested, such as changing the light levels in the rooms. Other, more obvious incentives, such as monetary incentives and rest pauses, were also tested and seemed to show positive results. [35] Several conclusions were made after the experiments finished:

Halo effect

The halo effect was first developed and empirically examined by an American psychologist named Edward Thorndike in his 1920 piece "A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings". The halo effect, also called the halo error, refers to a type of cognitive bias in which we perceive people as better due to their other related traits.  [36]

A typical halo effect example is the attractiveness stereotype, which refers to ascribing positive qualities to physically attractive people. Often, attractive individuals are believed to have lower mortality rates, better mental health, and higher intelligence. However, this is a cognitive error based on one's inclinations, beliefs, and social perception.   The halo effect is a well-documented social psychology discovery. It is the concept that a person's overall evaluations (e.g., she is pleasant) bleed over into judgments regarding their characteristics (e.g. she is intelligent). [37] It's also known as the "beauty is good" notion or the "physical attractiveness" stereotype.

Milgram Experiment

The Milgram experiment, conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram in the early 1960s, aimed to investigate obedience to authority figures. It involved three roles: the experimenter (the authority figure), the teacher (the participant), and the learner (an actor posing as a participant). The teacher was instructed to administer electric shocks to the learner for wrong answers, despite the learner's apparent distress. This experiment shed light on individuals' willingness to comply with authority, even when it contradicted their personal beliefs. [38]

The findings of the experiment revealed that a significant portion of participants continued to administer shocks despite their discomfort, showcasing the power of authority in influencing human behavior.

The Milgram experiment's ethical considerations and criticism centered on its psychological impact on participants. It raised concerns about the potential emotional stress inflicted on the individuals involved in the study. [39]

This study significantly contributed to understanding obedience to authority and human behavior in social contexts. Its impact extended beyond psychology, influencing various fields like ethics, sociology, and behavioral studies. The experiment's implications and ethical considerations continue to spark discussions in the academic and social spheres.

Informal social experiments

The Button

The Button was an online social experiment on the social networking website Reddit created by Josh Wardle, who went by powerlanguage, on 1 April 2015 (April Fools' Day) as an April Fools' prank. The experiment involved an online button and a 60-second countdown timer that would reset every time the button was pressed. Reddit users who created their account before 1 April had only one chance to press the button. [40]

During the experiment, Reddit users would split by colored circles based on when they pressed the button. If the button was pushed with 60 seconds on the timer, their circle would be purple, if it was pushed with 45 seconds, their circle would be blue, etc. If the user did not press the button, their circle would stay grey. These color-coded circles turned into factions as people of the same colored circles would come together and create their own subreddits, with the purple group being the largest group. [41]

This experiment went on for two months until 5 June 2015, when the timer went down to zero. A Reddit user named mncke created an automated bot that would use “zombie” accounts to press the Button so the Button would go on forever. But when one of the “zombie's” accounts was created after 1 April, nothing happened when it tried to press the Button, and the Button ticked down to zero. [42]

r/Place

r/Place was an online social experiment on the social networking website Reddit created by Josh Wardle, who went by powerlanguage, that first began on April Fools' Day 2017 and rebooted on April Fools' Day 2022. In the 2017 experiment, it starts off as a blank 1000x1000 tile canvas with tiny white pixels, and Reddit users can place a colored tile once every five minutes. [43] There were different types of artwork such as the Mona Lisa, band logos, video game logos, and multiple country flags, with the American flag being in the center. The experiment ended after 3 days with 16 million pixels and over a million users who edited the canvas. [43] [44]

In the 2022 experiment, it starts off with a blank 2000x2000 tile canvas and 16 new colors. There were turf wars during the experiment where people would change the logos. For example, changing the Genshin Impact logo to “Genshit.” [45] The experiment ended after five days with nearly 72 million pixels and over 6 million users who edited the canvas. [46]

    Digital platforms for social experiments

    The use of digital platforms for social experiments has revolutionized the way researchers conduct studies and gather data. These platforms provide a versatile and accessible means of reaching a broader audience, enabling the performance of social experiments beyond the constraints of traditional laboratory settings. For example, the Citizen Social Lab platform combines human behavioral experiments with a citizen science approach, allowing researchers to bring science to a wider audience and conduct experiments in open and diverse environments. [47] In 2024, YouTuber Nicholas Perry, known as Nikocado Avacado revealed his weight gain was all part of a social experiment.

    Related Research Articles

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Milgram experiment</span> Series of social psychology experiments

    Beginning on August 7, 1961, a series of social psychology experiments were conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, who intended to measure the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience. Participants were led to believe that they were assisting an unrelated experiment, in which they had to administer electric shocks to a "learner". These fake electric shocks gradually increased to levels that would have been fatal had they been real.

    Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the relationship between mental states and social situations, studying the social conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur, and how these variables influence social interactions.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanley Milgram</span> American social psychologist

    Stanley Milgram was an American social psychologist known for his controversial experiments on obedience conducted in the 1960s during his professorship at Yale.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanford prison experiment</span> Controversial 1971 psychological experiment

    The Stanford prison experiment (SPE) was a psychological experiment performed during August 1971. It was a two-week simulation of a prison environment that examined the effects of situational variables on participants' reactions and behaviors. Stanford University psychology professor Philip Zimbardo managed the research team who administered the study.

    The bystander effect, or bystander apathy, is a social psychological theory that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in the presence of other people. The theory was first proposed in 1964 after the murder of Kitty Genovese, in which a newspaper had reported that 38 bystanders saw or heard the attack without coming to her assistance or calling the police. Much research, mostly in psychology research laboratories, has focused on increasingly varied factors, such as the number of bystanders, ambiguity, group cohesiveness, and diffusion of responsibility that reinforces mutual denial. If a single individual is asked to complete a task alone, the sense of responsibility will be strong, and there will be a positive response; however, if a group is required to complete a task together, each individual in the group will have a weak sense of responsibility, and will often shrink back in the face of difficulties or responsibilities.

    Obedience, in human behavior, is a form of "social influence in which a person yields to explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure". Obedience is generally distinguished from compliance, which some authors define as behavior influenced by peers while others use it as a more general term for positive responses to another individual's request, and from conformity, which is behavior intended to match that of the majority. Depending on context, obedience can be seen as moral, immoral, or amoral. For example, in psychological research, individuals are usually confronted with immoral demands designed to elicit an internal conflict. If individuals still choose to submit to the demand, they are acting obediently.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Solomon Asch</span> Polish-American psychologist (1907–1996)

    Solomon Eliot Asch (September 14, 1907 – February 20, 1996) was a Polish-American Gestalt psychologist and pioneer in social psychology. He created seminal pieces of work in impression formation, prestige suggestion, conformity, and many other topics. His work follows a common theme of Gestalt psychology that the whole is not only greater than the sum of its parts, but the nature of the whole fundamentally alters the parts. Asch stated: "Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function". Asch is most well known for his conformity experiments, in which he demonstrated the influence of group pressure on opinions. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Asch as the 41st most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Human subject research</span> Systematic, scientific investigation that involves human beings as research subjects

    Human subject research is systematic, scientific investigation that can be either interventional or observational and involves human beings as research subjects, commonly known as test subjects. Human subject research can be either medical (clinical) research or non-medical research. Systematic investigation incorporates both the collection and analysis of data in order to answer a specific question. Medical human subject research often involves analysis of biological specimens, epidemiological and behavioral studies and medical chart review studies. On the other hand, human subject research in the social sciences often involves surveys which consist of questions to a particular group of people. Survey methodology includes questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups.

    Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals adjust their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.

    1. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private.
    2. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.
    3. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.

    In psychology, the Asch conformity experiments or the Asch paradigm were a series of studies directed by Solomon Asch studying if and how individuals yielded to or defied a majority group and the effect of such influences on beliefs and opinions.

    Deindividuation is a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self-awareness in groups, although this is a matter of contention. For the social psychologist, the level of analysis is the individual in the context of a social situation. As such, social psychologists emphasize the role of internal psychological processes. Other social scientists, such as sociologists, are more concerned with broad social, economic, political, and historical factors that influence events in a given society.

    External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can generalize or transport to other situations, people, stimuli, and times. Generalizability refers to the applicability of a predefined sample to a broader population while transportability refers to the applicability of one sample to another target population. In contrast, internal validity is the validity of conclusions drawn within the context of a particular study.

    Under the controversy of person–situation debate, situationism is the theory that changes in human behavior are factors of the situation rather than the traits a person possesses. Behavior is believed to be influenced by external, situational factors rather than internal traits or motivations. Situationism therefore challenges the positions of trait theorists, such as Hans Eysenck or Raymond B. Cattell. This is an ongoing debate that has truth to both sides; psychologists are able to prove each of the view points through human experimentation.

    Social impact theory was created by Bibb Latané in 1981 and consists of four basic rules which consider how individuals can be "sources or targets of social influence". Social impact is the result of social forces including the strength of the source of impact, the immediacy of the event, and the number of sources exerting the impact. The more targets of impact that exist, the less impact each individual target has.

    Normative social influence is a type of social influence that leads to conformity. It is defined in social psychology as "...the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them." The power of normative social influence stems from the human identity as a social being, with a need for companionship and association.

    <i>Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View</i> 1974 book by Stanley Milgram

    Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View is a 1974 book by social psychologist Stanley Milgram concerning a series of experiments on obedience to authority figures he conducted in the early 1960s. This book provides an in-depth look into his methods, theories and conclusions.

    Compliance is a response—specifically, a submission—made in reaction to a request. The request may be explicit or implicit. The target may or may not recognize that they are being urged to act in a particular way.

    Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like-minded. Norms are implicit, specific rules, guidance shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. People often choose to conform to society rather than to pursue personal desires – because it is often easier to follow the path others have made already, rather than forging a new one. Thus, conformity is sometimes a product of group communication. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or in society as a whole and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or from direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or when watching television, even if alone.

    Authority bias is the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure and be more influenced by that opinion. An individual is more influenced by the opinion of this authority figure, believing their views to be more credible, and hence place greater emphasis on the authority figure's viewpoint and are more likely to obey them. This concept is considered one of the social cognitive biases or collective cognitive biases.

    References

    1. ↑ Pitzer, D. E. (1989). "Developmental communalism: An alternative approach to communal studies". Utopian Thought and Communal Experience: 68–76.
    2. ↑ Leuba, James H.; McDougall, William (April 1909). "An Introduction to Social Psychology" . The American Journal of Psychology. 20 (2): 285. doi:10.2307/1413301. JSTOR   1413301.
    3. ↑ "10 marketing experiments to improve your reach on social media". Learn. 26 February 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
    4. ↑ "Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition". Open Textbooks for Hong Kong. 20 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
    5. ↑ Smith, Joanne R.; Haslam, S. Alexander (6 July 2012). Social Psychology: Revisiting the Classic Studies. SAGE Publications. ISBN   978-0-85702-756-6.
    6. ↑ "Experimental Methods in Psychology | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
    7. ↑ Brannigan, Augustine (1 December 2013). "Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiments: A Report Card 50 Years Later". Society. 50 (6): 623–628. doi: 10.1007/s12115-013-9724-3 . ISSN   1936-4725.
    8. ↑ Kershaw, David N. (1972). "A Negative-Income-Tax Experiment" . Scientific American. 227 (4): 19–25. Bibcode:1972SciAm.227d..19K. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1072-19. ISSN   0036-8733. JSTOR   24922887. S2CID   121103670.
    9. ↑ T D Cook; Shadish, and W. R. (1994). "Social Experiments: Some Developments over the Past Fifteen Years". Annual Review of Psychology. 45 (1): 545–580. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.45.020194.002553.
    10. ↑ Humphreys, Macartan (1 June 2015). "Reflections on the Ethics of Social Experimentation" (PDF). Journal of Globalization and Development. 6 (1). doi:10.1515/jgd-2014-0016. ISSN   1948-1837. S2CID   155345823.
    11. ↑ Chen, Ted; Klien, Asher. "Over Hoax Claims, Homeless Man and YouTuber Insist Their Viral Video Is Genuine". NBC. No. 2/01/15. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
    12. 1 2 Manna, Valerie A. (August 2017). The ethics of informal social experiments. Macromarketing Society Inc. and the Marketing Department, University of Otago. hdl:10182/9574. ISBN   978-0-473-39583-4.
    13. 1 2 Latane, Bibb; John M. Darley (1 June 1970). The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help?. Prentice Hal. ISBN   0139386130.
    14. ↑ Thomas, Kyle A.; De Freitas, Julian; DeScioli, Peter; Pinker, Steven (May 2016). "Recursive mentalizing and common knowledge in the bystander effect" . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 145 (5): 621–629. doi:10.1037/xge0000153. ISSN   1939-2222. PMID   26913616. S2CID   23538844.
    15. ↑ Thomas, Kyle A.; De Freitas, Julian; DeScioli, Peter; Pinker, Steven (2016). "Recursive Mentalizing and Common Knowledge in the Bystander Effect". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 145 (5): 621–629. doi:10.1037/xge0000153. PMID   26913616. S2CID   23538844.
    16. ↑ Schweinhart, Lawrence J. (2010), Reynolds, Arthur J.; Rolnick, Arthur J.; Temple, Judy A.; Englund, Michelle M. (eds.), "The Challenge of the HighScope Perry Preschool Study" , Childhood Programs and Practices in the First Decade of Life: A Human Capital Integration, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–167, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511762666.008, ISBN   978-0-521-19846-2 , retrieved 22 May 2021
    17. ↑ Significant Benefits, The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 27[ citation needed ]
    18. ↑ Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy: Social Programs That Work: Perry Preschool Project[ citation needed ]
    19. ↑ Brook, Robert H.; Keeler, Emmett B.; Lohr, Kathleen N.; Newhouse, Joseph P.; Ware, John E.; Rogers, William H.; Davies, Allyson Ross; Sherbourne, Cathy D.; Goldberg, George A.; Camp, Patricia; Kamberg, Caren (6 December 2006). "The Health Insurance Experiment: A Classic RAND Study Speaks to the Current Health Care Reform Debate".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
    20. ↑ Paying for Better Parenting, New York Times, Accessed 12/07/06
    21. ↑ Mexico's Oportunidades Program Accessed 12/07/06
    22. ↑ Bulletin of the World Health Organization – Reaching Mexico's poorest Accessed 12/07/06
    23. ↑ "Moving To Opportunity". NBER. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
    24. ↑ Blumenberg, Evelyn; Pierce, Gregory (December 2017). "Car Access and Long-term Poverty Exposure: Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity (MTO) Experiment". Journal of Transport Geography. 65: 92–100. Bibcode:2017JTGeo..65...92B. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.10.009.
    25. ↑ "8. Conclusion". Stanford Prison Experiment.
    26. ↑ "FAQ on official site". Archived from the original on 9 September 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
    27. ↑ "Thirty Years Later, Stanford Prison Experiment Lives on". Archived from the original on 5 November 2001. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
    28. ↑ "Intro to psychology textbooks gloss over criticisms of Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment". 7 September 2014.
    29. ↑ Jaan Valsiner (2001). Comparative study of human cultural development. Fundacion Infancia y Aprendizaje. ISBN   9788495264015.
    30. ↑ "Bobo doll experiment | Description, Methodology, Results, & Facts | Britannica". 29 April 2023.
    31. ↑ "Delaying Gratification" (PDF). Apa.org. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
    32. ↑ "Marshmallow Test Experiment | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
    33. ↑ McLeod, Saul. "Asch Experiment". Simply Psychology. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
    34. ↑ "1951 Psychologist Solomon Asch's Famous Experiments". www.swarthmore.edu. 15 June 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
    35. 1 2 "Elton Mayo: The Hawthorne Experiments Thinker". The British Library. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
    36. ↑ "Halo Effect: Definition and Examples | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
    37. ↑ "Social Psychology Experiments: 10 Of The Most Brilliant Studies". PsyBlog. 1 June 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
    38. ↑ De Vos, J. (2009). Now that you know, how do you feel? The Milgram experiment and psychologization. Annual Review of Critical Psychology, 7, 225–227.
    39. ↑ Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram's "Behavioral Study of Obedience". American Psychologist, 19(6), 421–423.
    40. ↑ Lee, Timothy B. (10 April 2015). "The button: the fascinating social experiment driving Reddit crazy". Vox. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    41. ↑ McCormick, Rich (9 June 2015). "How Reddit's mysterious April Fools' button inspired religions and cults". The Verge. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    42. ↑ "Reddit's 'The Button' Game Is Over". Kotaku. 9 June 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    43. 1 2 Wanjala, Alvin (29 March 2022). "What Is r/Place? How to Contribute to Reddit's Art Experiment". MUO. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    44. ↑ Rauwerda, Annie (28 March 2022). "Reddit is bringing back beloved digital art experiment, r/Place". Input. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    45. ↑ "Reddit's r/place Is a Testament to Internet Culture and Camaraderie". Hypebeast. 6 April 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    46. ↑ Thomas, Amy. "The wrong r/place and the wrong time for copyright and NFTs? – CREATe" . Retrieved 21 March 2023.
    47. ↑ Mosleh, Mohsen; Pennycook, Gordon; Rand, David G. (2022). "Field Experiments on Social Media". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 31 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1177/09637214211054761. hdl: 1721.1/144270 . ISSN   0963-7214. S2CID   243534889.
    This page is based on this Wikipedia article
    Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
    Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.