Height discrimination

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Height discrimination (also known as heightism) is prejudice or discrimination against individuals based on height. In principle, it refers to the discriminatory treatment against individuals whose height is not within the normal acceptable range of height in a population. Various studies have shown it to be a cause of bullying, commonly manifested as unconscious microaggressions. [1] [2]

Contents

Research indicates that people often use height as one factor to measure social status and fitness. Both the cognitive and the culturally-ingrained unconscious heuristic association between height and the mentioned traits has also been found to be stronger when assessing men than women. [3] [4] [5]

Lexicology

The term heightism was coined by sociologist Saul Feldman in a paper titled "The presentation of shortness in everyday life—height and heightism in American society: Toward a sociology of stature", presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association in 1971. [6] [7] Heightism was included in the Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1971) [8] and had a further degree of popularization by Time magazine in a 1971 article on Feldman's paper. [9]

The term heightism can also be seen as an example of the increase in popular usage of phrases, particularly those relating to prejudice and discrimination, patterned after that of the word sexism. [8] Height discrimination can also come in the form of pejorative slang terms. [10]

Height and social discrimination

Employment wage and social experience discrimination

A 2004 study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology showed that height is strongly related to success for men. It showed that increase in height for men corresponds to increase in income after controlling for other social psychological variables like age and weight. [1] That same year, a study published in the Journal of Political Economy conjectured a "height premium" and found that "a 1.8-percent increase in wages accompanies every additional inch of height". They also found that men's wages as adults could be linked to their height at age 16. The researchers found that on an average an increase in height by one inch at age 16 increased male adult wages by 2.6 percent. This is equal to an increase of approximately $850 in 1996 annual earnings (or $1,650 today). [11] In other words, the height and corresponding social experiences of a taller male adolescent at age 16 would likely translate to higher wages in later adulthood as compared to a shorter male adolescent. [2]

Recent findings suggest that height discrimination occurs most often against racial minorities. A 2007 study published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior found that African-Americans reported higher weight and height related discrimination. This discrimination was even higher in female employees. [12]

In 2017, attorney and author Tanya Osensky published Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change. [13] The book examines the cultural, medical, and occupational issues that short people face, which are often deemed unimportant and disregarded. Osensky challenges heightism by disclosing some beneficial aspects of shortness and suggesting avenues of activism and change.

In business

Some jobs require a minimum height. For example, US Military pilots have to be 160 to 200 centimetres (63 to 79 in) tall with a sitting height of 86 to 102 centimetres (34 to 40 in). [14] Other jobs require a maximum height or to be between a certain height range, such as flight attendant. [15] These exceptions noted, in the great majority of cases a person's height would not seem to have an effect on how well they are able to perform their job. Nevertheless, studies have shown that short people are paid less than taller people, with disparities similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. [16]

Surveys have uncovered that less than 3% of CEOs were below 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) in height, and 90% of CEOs are of above average height. [17]

Perceived attractiveness

Initial studies indicated that taller men are more likely to be married and to have more children, except in societies with severe sex imbalances caused by war. [18] However, more recent research has drawn this theory into question, finding no correlation between height and offspring count, although the sample was 200 and consisted only of delinquent youth. [19] Moreover, research on leg length and leg-to-body ratio conflicts with the notion that there is a distinct preference for taller mates. A 2008 study found that both extremes, tall and short, reduced attractiveness, and a 2006 study found that a higher leg-to-body ratio in both genders increased aesthetic appeal. [20] [21] Conversely, research by Dan Ariely found that American women exhibit a marked preference for dating taller men, and that for shorter men to be judged attractive by women, they must earn substantially more money than taller men. [22] Also, the perceived attractiveness of taller men may also apply to men of average height. A study showed that there isn't a notable difference between the perceived attractiveness of taller men and average height men when compared to each other. Rather, it's that shorter men are more unfavorably viewed and the increased preference for the other two groups are a possible side effect. [23]

A 2012 study found that both men and women are willing to excuse height differences by using a trade-off approach. Men may compensate 1.3 BMI units with a 1 percent higher wage than their wife. Women may compensate 2 BMI units with an additional year of higher education. [24] Furthermore, a 2015 study found that both men and women receive economic benefits from having a tall spouse. [24]

Nonetheless, on a cultural level in post-industrial society, a sociological relationship between height and perceived attractiveness exists. For instance, in a 2019 survey performed by Ipsos in Hungary with over 500 respondents, the perfect height for men for 53% of participants was between 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in), while regarding female ideal height, 60% of respondents stated that it should be between 1.65 m (5 ft 5 in) and 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in), indicating a predominant preference for average to moderately tall height in both sexes. [25] A study produced by the Universities of Groningen and Valencia, found that the taller a man was, the less anxious he felt about attractive, physically dominant, and socially powerful rivals. [26] This cultural characteristic of conferring relevance to height as an indicator of attractiveness, while applicable to the modernized world, is not a transcendental human quality. [27]

In the media

In 1987 the BBC comedy series A Small Problem imagined a totalitarian society in which people under the height of 5 feet (1.5 m) were systematically discriminated against. The program attracted considerable criticism and complaints which accused the writers of reinforcing prejudice and of using offensive terms; the writers responded that their intention had been to show all prejudice was stupid and that height was chosen randomly. [28]

S&M Short and Male , a documentary aired in 2008, demonstrated the obstacles and bigotry that short statured men face every day in life, love and work. [29] [30] [31]

In 2019, the teen romantic comedy Tall Girl was released. It told the story of a 16 year-old girl who struggled in high school due to her height.

Law

Currently, there is one state in the United States of America, Michigan, that prohibits height discrimination. [32] Three American cities currently prohibit height discrimination: Santa Cruz, California, [33] San Francisco, California, [34] and New York City; New York City prohibits it in employment, housing, and public accommodations. [35] The District of Columbia prohibits discrimination based on personal appearance. [36] Ontario, Canada, prohibits height discrimination under the human rights code. [37] Victoria, Australia, prohibits discrimination based on physical features, including height, under the Equal Opportunity Act of 2010. [38]

Examples of successful legal battles pursued against height discrimination in the workplace include a 2002 case involving highly qualified applicants being turned down for jobs at a bank because they were considered too short; [39] a 2005 Swedish case involving an unfair height requirement for employment implemented by Volvo; [40] and a 1999 case involving a Kohler Company informal practice not to consider women who applied for jobs unless they were at least 5 ft 4 in (1.63 m) tall. [41] Height requirements for employment which are not a bona fide occupational requirement are becoming less common.[ citation needed ] In 2022, the Supreme Court of Spain ruled that height requirements for joining the National Police Corps must take into account the average height for each sex in the Spanish population, disallowing a previous height rule for women. [42]

Height and mental health in men

Height is related to body image and does have an effect on the cognitive process. A study done involving spatial attention showed that people who were unhappy with their height were prone to looking quicker to short-associated words and tried to avoid attention to tall connected words because they could illicit negative feelings. Which could be caused when the participants with a dismal body image are exposed to their desired height, it creates an internal conflict, that they would like to lessen by facing away. This would potentially confirm agitation in individuals who are not satisfied with their height. [43]

A research report published in the American Journal of Psychiatry found a strong inverse association between height and suicide in Swedish men. In other words, the suicide rate was higher for shorter men. This may signify the importance of childhood exposure in the etiology of adult mental disorder or reflect stigmatization or discrimination encountered by short men in their adult lives. A record linkage study of the birth, conscription, mortality, family, and census register data of 1,299,177 Swedish men followed from age 18 to a maximum of age 49 was performed and it was found that a 5 cm (2 in) increase in height was associated with a 9% decrease in suicide risk. [44]

Another study involving was conducted involving suicide and height for men, specifically relating to suicide attempts. It looked into hospital admissions of Swedish men and found that the risk of suicide declined when height increased. There were strong correlations between social class and height in the participants, particularly shorter men of lower status had a higher suicide probability. Also those of low socioeconomic standing could be more susceptible to health problems that cause shortness, and were more vulnerable to psychiatric illnesses. [45]

For other forms of discrimination there is without a doubt some form of psychological harm on the individual. However, for height discrimination, it can be disputable. Research has shown that heightism has arguably little effect on any aspects of someone's quality of life, including mental state. Only individuals on the high end range of short and tall have experienced some moderate impact on physical performance. [46] Furthermore, majority of the potential negative mental health effects individuals could have came from internally, height discontentment, and it was relatively small compared to overall livelihood. While there is an increase in negative treatment towards individuals in the height area of less then 175 cm, it was mild in totality and only a small percentage of the overall study group reported it. The correlation between heightism and the well being of someone was found to be small. [47]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body mass index</span> Relative weight based on mass and height

Body mass index (BMI) is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms (kg) and height in metres (m).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual attraction</span> Attraction on the basis of sexual desire

Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract other people sexually, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics, movements, voice, among other things. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's body odor, sex pheromones, adornments, clothing, perfume or hair style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Sociosexuality, sometimes called sociosexual orientation, is the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship. Individuals who are more restricted sociosexually are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners. Individuals who are more unrestricted sociosexually are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, commitment or closeness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human height</span> Aspect of human growth

Human height or stature is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the head in a human body, standing erect. It is measured using a stadiometer, in centimetres when using the metric system or SI system, or feet and inches when using United States customary units or the imperial system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical attractiveness</span> Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes, and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.

Short stature refers to a height of a human which is below typical. Whether a person is considered short depends on the context. Because of the lack of preciseness, there is often disagreement about the degree of shortness that should be called short. Dwarfism is the condition of being very short, often caused by a medical condition. In a medical context, short stature is typically defined as an adult height that is more than two standard deviations below a population’s mean for age and sex, which corresponds to the shortest 2.3% of individuals in that population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waist–hip ratio</span> Waist measurement divided by hip measurement

The waist–hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement. For example, a person with a 75 cm waist and 95 cm hips has WHR of about 0.79.

Human male sexuality encompasses a wide variety of feelings and behaviors. Men's feelings of attraction may be caused by various physical and social traits of their potential partner. Men's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions, individual personality, upbringing, and culture. While most men are heterosexual, there are minorities of homosexual men and varying degrees of bisexual men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Organization of Short Statured Adults</span> American non-profit advocacy group for adults of short stature

The National Organization of Short Statured Adults (NOSSA) was an American non-profit advocacy group for adults of short stature. The organization clearly defined "short stature" to be men 5 ft 7 in (1.70 m) or below and women 5 ft 2 in (1.57 m) or below in height. The group advocated on behalf of short people and hoped to foster greater acceptance of short people within society. NOSSA was opposed to the prejudice known as heightism. The group defined heightism as, "a prejudiced attitude about human height that often results in discrimination. It is based on the belief that short stature is an inferior trait and therefore undesirable." The organization ran a series of public education programs, sponsored height-related research, acted as a media watchdog group, provided legal assistance for those affected by heightism, hosted online discussion groups, and invited members to gather once a year for an annual convention. NOSSA dissolved in May 2013 because of a lack of support.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Napoleon complex</span> Purported type of inferiority complex

The Napoleon complex, also known as Napoleon syndrome and short-man syndrome, is a purported condition normally attributed to people of short stature, with overly aggressive or domineering social behavior. It implies that such behavior is to compensate for the subject's physical or social shortcomings. Both commonly and in psychology, the Napoleon complex is regarded as a derogatory social stereotype. The Napoleon complex is named after Napoleon Bonaparte, the first emperor of the French, who was estimated to have been 5' 2" tall, which equals around 1.67 meters, or just under 5' 6" in imperial measure. He was of average height among all men in France, but was much shorter than the elite soldiers, aristocrats and high officials that he met with.

Sizeism, weightism or size discrimination is unjust or prejudicial treatment directed at people based on their size.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in humans</span> Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans

Sexual selection in humans concerns the concept of sexual selection, introduced by Charles Darwin as an element of his theory of natural selection, as it affects humans. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best reproductive success. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

Social stigma of obesity is bias or discriminatory behaviors targeted at overweight and obese individuals because of their weight and high body fat percentage. Such social stigmas can span one's entire life as long as excess weight is present, starting from a young age and lasting into adulthood. Studies also indicate overweight and obese individuals experience higher levels of stigma compared to other people. Stigmatization of obesity is usually associated with increased health risks (morbidity) of being overweight or obese and the possibility of a shorter lifespan (mortality).

Mate preferences in humans refers to why one human chooses or chooses not to mate with another human and their reasoning why. Men and women have been observed having different criteria as what makes a good or ideal mate. A potential mate's socioeconomic status has also been seen important, especially in developing areas where social status is more emphasized.

Lookism is prejudice or discrimination toward people who are considered to be physically unattractive, and bases perception of all other qualities, such as intelligence and abilities, on a person’s physical appearance. It occurs in a variety of settings, including dating, social environments, and workplaces. Lookism has received less cultural attention than other forms of discrimination and typically does not have the legal protections that other forms often have, but it is still widespread and significantly affects people's opportunities in terms of romantic relationships, job opportunities, and other realms of life. The same concept from the opposite angle is sometimes named pretty privilege.

Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination generally occurs by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. Phenotypic sex refers to an individual's sex as determined by their internal and external genitalia and expression of secondary sex characteristics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human mating strategies</span> Courtship behavior of humans

In evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, human mating strategies are a set of behaviors used by individuals to select, attract, and retain mates. Mating strategies overlap with reproductive strategies, which encompass a broader set of behaviors involving the timing of reproduction and the trade-off between quantity and quality of offspring.

Mate value is derived from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and sexual selection, as well as the social exchange theory of relationships. Mate value is defined as the sum of traits that are perceived as desirable, representing genetic quality and/or fitness, an indication of a potential mate's reproductive success. Based on mate desirability and mate preference, mate value underpins mate selection and the formation of romantic relationships.

Female intrasexual competition is competition between women over a potential mate. Such competition might include self-promotion, derogation of other women, and direct and indirect aggression toward other women. Factors that influence female intrasexual competition include the genetic quality of available mates, hormone levels, and interpersonal dynamics.

The ovulatory shift hypothesis holds that women experience evolutionarily adaptive changes in subconscious thoughts and behaviors related to mating during different parts of the ovulatory cycle. It suggests that what women want, in terms of men, changes throughout the menstrual cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle.

References

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  13. ↑ Osensky, Tanya S. (2017). Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change. Brandeis University Press. ISBN   978-1-5126-0143-5.[ page needed ]
  14. ↑ "U.S. Air Force ROTC despite statistical and physical evidence to support the proposition that short people consistently have reduced reaction times.: Admissions requirements". afrotc.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
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  16. ↑ Donohue, Meg. "Why tall people make more money". CNN . Retrieved 22 October 2017.
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  22. ↑ "Ariely found that a 5'4" man would need to make $229,000 more than a 6' man to have equal appeal; a 5'6" man would need $183,000 more; a 5'10" man would need $32,000 more." Lori Gottlieb (2010). Marry Him: The Case for Settling for Mr. Good Enough. Penguin, ISBN   9781101185209 p. 239
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  28. ↑ A Small Problem in BBC Comedy Guide.
  29. ↑ "CANOE - JAM! S&M: Short And Male: Short guys film rises to challenge". Jam.canoe.ca. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
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  32. ↑ Text of the Elliot Larsen Civil Rights Act of 1976.
  33. ↑ Chapter 9.83 Archived 5 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine of the City of Santa Cruz code – "Prohibition against Discrimination", 1992.
  34. ↑ Text Archived 14 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine of Compliance Guidelines To Prohibit Weight and Height Discrimination; San Francisco Administrative Code Chapters 12A, 12B and 12C and San Francisco Municipal/Police Code Article 33, 26 July 2001.
  35. ↑ "Mayor Adams Signs Legislation To Prohibit Height Or Weight Discrimination In Employment, Housing, An". The official website of the City of New York. May 26, 2023.
  36. ↑ Text Archived 6 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine District of Columbia Human Rights Act.
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