Discrimination against gay men

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Grave for Daniel Zamudio, a 24-year old Chilean man who was beaten and tortured for several hours in downtown Santiago by four perpetrators, who attacked him after learning he was gay Animita Daniel Zamudio.jpg
Grave for Daniel Zamudio, a 24-year old Chilean man who was beaten and tortured for several hours in downtown Santiago by four perpetrators, who attacked him after learning he was gay

Discrimination against gay men, sometimes called gayphobia , is a form of homophobic prejudice, hatred, or bias specifically directed toward gay men, male homosexuality, or men who are perceived to be gay. [1] [2] [3] [4] This discrimination is closely related to femmephobia , which is the dislike of, or hostility toward, individuals who present as feminine, including gay and effeminate men. [5]

Contents

Discrimination against gay men can result from religion, prejudicial reactions to one's feminine mannerisms, styles of clothing, and even vocal register. [6] [7] [8] Within the LGBTQ-community, internalized issues around meeting social expectations of masculinity have been found among gay, bisexual, and transgender men. [9] It is analogous to lesbophobia.

Discrimination in society

According to the French government, discrimination against gay men "is a form of homophobia that specifically affects men. Although it is primarily aimed at gay and bisexual men, it can also affect heterosexual men who are perceived as homosexual. Gay men may be targets of physical aggression or devalued by stereotypes linked to feminisation and hypersexualisation." [3]

The journalist Pierre Bouvier described anti-gay male sentiment as parallel to lesbophobia. Noting how these two different forms of homophobia operate in Western cultures, he wrote, [10]

There is very clearly a difference in mechanisms between gayphobia and lesbophobia, and this translates into different types of aggression. Where the collective imagination over-sexualizes gay men and exerts strong verbal and physical violence against boys and men who are not considered sufficiently masculine or heterosexual; for women, on the other hand, the assertion of their lesbian identity will be further disqualified, minimized, reduced to a fad, or even sexualized as a prelude to heterosexuality.

In 2002, there were at least 30 countries where female homosexuality was not explicitly criminalized, but male homosexuality was illegal. [11] Compared to lesbians, gay men are more often victims of hate crimes [12] and have more difficulty adopting children. [13]

Queer theory

In French academia, queer theorists have examined the unique ways in which patriarchy attempts to enforce both masculinity and heterosexuality on those with male bodies. The French queer and race theorist Louis-Georges Tin examined discrimination against gay men, and the historical development of the various forms of LGBT-related phobias under the umbrella of homophobia. He writes:

There has been an inverse movement of lexical differentiation operating at the heart of the concept of homophobia. Because of the specificity of attitudes towards lesbianism, the term lesbophobia has been introduced into theoretic discourses, a term which brings to light particular mechanisms that the generic concept of homophobia tends to overshadow. With one stroke, this distinction justifies the term gayphobia, since much homophobic discourse, in reality, pertains only to male homosexuality. Similarly, the concept of biphobia has also been proposed in order to highlight the singular situation of bisexuals, often stigmatized by both heterosexual and homosexual communities. Moreover, we need to take into consideration the very different issues linked to transsexual, transvestite, and transgender persons, which brings to mind the notion of transphobia. [14]

In her 2017 text, The Women's Liberation Movement: Impacts and Outcomes, the German gender historian Kristina Schulz  [ de ] noted that within the Western media landscape during the 1970s' Gay Rights Movement, prejudice against gay men attracted more media attention than lesbophobia, largely due to the rhetoric of reactionary conservatives such as Anita Bryant, who suggested that gay men were sexual predators. [15]

Academic studies

In peer-reviewed studies which break down and distinguish homophobia separately between discrimination against gay men and lesbians, researchers have found statistically significant differences between heterosexual men and women in regards to their attitudes toward gay men. [16] While no statistically significant differences were found in men and women in regard to lesbians, heterosexual men do demonstrate statistically significant elevated levels of animosity toward men they perceive as gay. [16]

Linguistics

Scholars have noted most homophobic slurs are specifically directed against gay men. Paul Baker of Lancaster University writes, "Many gay men have been subjected to bouts of name-calling, possibly from a time before they even realized what homosexuality was. The over-lexicalisation of pejorative terms for 'gay man' which exist (for example: faggot , pansy, puff, shirt-lifter, brown-hatter, fairy, batty-boy, queer , etc.) is further testament to their status as 'target.'" [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA+) people frequently experience violence directed toward their sexuality, gender identity, or gender expression. This violence may be enacted by the state, as in laws prescribing punishment for homosexual acts, or by individuals. It may be psychological or physical and motivated by biphobia, gayphobia, homophobia, lesbophobia, aphobia, and transphobia. Influencing factors may be cultural, religious, or political mores and biases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</span> Variety of communities and subcultures

Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures are subcultures and communities composed of people who have shared experiences, backgrounds, or interests due to common sexual or gender identities. Among the first to argue that members of sexual minorities can also constitute cultural minorities were Adolf Brand, Magnus Hirschfeld, and Leontine Sagan in Germany. These pioneers were later followed by the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis in the United States.

Gay bashing is an attack, abuse, or assault committed against a person who is perceived by the aggressor to be gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender or queer (LGBTQ+). It includes both violence against LGBT people and LGBT bullying. The term covers violence against and bullying of people who are LGBT, as well as non-LGBT people whom the attacker perceives to be LGBT.

Heteronormativity is the concept that heterosexuality is the preferred or normal sexual orientation. It assumes the gender binary and that sexual and marital relations are most fitting between people of opposite sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biphobia</span> Aversion to bisexual people

Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being bisexual. Similarly to homophobia, it refers to hatred and prejudice specifically against those identified or perceived as being in the bisexual community. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a genuine sexual orientation, or of negative stereotypes about people who are bisexual. Other forms of biphobia include bisexual erasure. Biphobia may also avert towards other sexualities attracted to multiple genders such as pansexuality or polysexuality, as the idea of being attracted to multiple genders is generally the cause of stigma towards bisexuality.

Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of heterosexuality and heterosexual relationships. According to Elizabeth Cramer, it can include the belief that all people are or should be heterosexual and that heterosexual relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latent homosexuality</span> Non-consciously experienced attraction toward members of the same sex

Latent homosexuality is an erotic attraction toward members of the same sex that is not consciously experienced or expressed in overt action. This may mean a hidden inclination or potential for interest in homosexual relationships, which is either suppressed or not recognized, and which has not yet been explored, or may never be explored.

A sexual minority is a demographic whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. Primarily used to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual, or non-heterosexual individuals, it can also refer to transgender, non-binary or intersex individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBT stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBTQ) people based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homophobia</span> Negative attitudes and discrimination toward homosexuality and LGBT people

Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, or antipathy, may be based on irrational fear and may sometimes be attributed to religious beliefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Kazakhstan</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Kazakhstan face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBTQ residents. Both male and female kinds of same-sex sexual activity are legal in Kazakhstan, but same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are not eligible for the same legal protections available to opposite-sex married couples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Discrimination against lesbians</span> Irrational fear of, and aversion to, lesbians

Discrimination against lesbians, sometimes called lesbophobia, comprises various forms of prejudice and negativity towards lesbians as individuals, as couples, as a social group, or lesbianism in general. Based on the categories of sex, sexual orientation, identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, hatred, and abuse; with attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. Lesbophobia is misogyny that intersects with homophobia, and vice versa. It is analogous to gayphobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in El Salvador</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, non-binary and otherwise queer, non-cisgender, non-heterosexual citizens of El Salvador face considerable legal and social challenges not experienced by fellow heterosexual, cisgender Salvadorans. While same-sex sexual activity between all genders is legal in the country, same-sex marriage is not recognized; thus, same-sex couples—and households headed by same-sex couples—are not eligible for the same legal benefits provided to heterosexual married couples.

Corrective rape, also called curative rape or homophobic rape, is a hate crime in which somebody is raped because of their perceived sexual orientation. The common intended consequence of the rape, as claimed by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education and the LGBT community</span>

Historically speaking, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) people have not been given equal treatment and rights by both governmental actions and society's general opinion. Much of the intolerance for LGBT individuals come from lack of education around the LGBT community, and contributes to the stigma that results in same-sex marriage being legal in few countries (31) and persistence of discrimination, such as in the workplace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of LGBTQ topics</span>

The following outline offers an overview and guide to LGBTQ topics:

Homophobia in ethnic minority communities is any negative prejudice or form of discrimination in ethnic minority communities worldwide towards people who identify as–or are perceived as being–lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT), known as homophobia. This may be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs. A 2006 study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in the UK found that while religion can have a positive function in many LGB Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, it can also play a role in supporting homophobia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African-American LGBTQ community</span> African-American population within the LGBT community

The African-American LGBT community, otherwise referred to as the Black American LGBT community, is part of the overall LGBTQ culture and overall African-American culture. The initialism LGBT stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

Queer erasure refers to the tendency to intentionally or unintentionally remove LGBT groups or people from record, or downplay their significance, which includes lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people. This erasure can be found in a number of written and oral texts, including popular and scholarly texts.

References

  1. ↑ Clauss-Ehlers, Caroline S. (2010). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology (2 ed.). Springer. p. 524. ISBN   9780387717982 . Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  2. ↑ "No More, No Less" (PDF). Sexual and Gender Diversity. Confédération des syndicats nationaux. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  3. 1 2 "2020-2023 National Action Plan to Promote Equal Rights and Combat Anti-LGBT+ Hatred and Discrimination" (PDF). # France LGBT+. The Government of the French Republic. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  4. ↑ "gayphobia". Glosbe. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  5. ↑ Paul, Annie (September 26, 2008). Caribbean Culture: Soundings on Kamau Brathwaite (1 ed.). University of the West Indies Press. p. 368. ISBN   9789766401504.
  6. ↑ Loftin, Craig M. (2007). "Unacceptable Mannerisms: Gender Anxieties, Homosexual Activism, and Swish in the United States, 1945-1965". Journal of Social History. 40 (3): 577–596. doi:10.1353/jsh.2007.0053. JSTOR   4491939. S2CID   143995645 . Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  7. ↑ Barry, Ben; Martin, Dylan (2016). "Gender rebels: inside the wardrobes of young gay men with subversive style" (PDF). Fashion, Style & Popular Culture. 3 (2): 225–250. doi:10.1386/fspc.3.2.225_1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-05. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  8. ↑ Meredith, Natasha. "Gay men who 'sound gay' encounter more stigma and discrimination from heterosexual peers". EurekAlert!. University of Surrey. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  9. ↑ F. J., Sánchez (2016). "Masculinity issues among gay, bisexual, and transgender men". APA Handbook of Men and Masculinities: 339–356. doi:10.1037/14594-016. ISBN   978-1-4338-1855-4 . Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  10. ↑ Bouvier, Pierre. "Pride march: 'Lesbians are not necessarily found in the speeches of many LGBT associations'". Hebergement. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  11. ↑ Smith, Dan (2003). The State of the World Atlas. Penguin Books. pp. 62–63.
  12. ↑ "FBI - Hate Crime 2008". FBI. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
  13. ↑ Benatar, David (2012-04-13). The Second Sexism. Wiley. p. 54. doi:10.1002/9781118192337. ISBN   978-0-470-67446-8.
  14. ↑ The Dictionary of Homophobia: A Global History of Gay & Lesbian Experience. arsenal pulp press. November 2008. ISBN   9781551523149 . Retrieved 2021-03-03.
  15. ↑ Schulz, Kristina (2017). The Women's Liberation Movement: Impacts and Outcomes (1 ed.). Oxford: Berghahn Books. p. 164. ISBN   9781785335877 . Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  16. 1 2 Gabriella, Martino (2019). "Relations among gender, religiosity and personality traits in homophobia". Journal of Clinical & Developmental Psychology. 1 (2): 1-11. doi:10.6092/2612-4033/0110-2046 . Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  17. ↑ Baker, Paul (September 2, 2003). Polari: The Lost Language of Gay Men. Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England, UK: Routledge. p. 74. ISBN   9780415261807 . Retrieved 16 November 2022.
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