Homosexuality in the DSM

Last updated

Homosexuality was classified as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) beginning with the first edition, published in 1952 by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). This classification was challenged by gay rights activists during the gay liberation following the 1969 Stonewall riots, and in December 1973, the APA board of trustees voted to declassify homosexuality as a mental disorder. In 1974, the DSM was updated and homosexuality was replaced with a new diagnostic code for individuals distressed by their homosexuality, termed ego-dystonic sexual orientation. Distress over one's sexual orientation remained in the manual, under different names, until the DSM-5 in 2013.

Contents

Before the DSM

The DSM's direct predecessor was the Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions of the Insane, first published in 1918 (by its 10th edition in 1942 it had become called the Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases). [1] The Statistical Manual was ambiguous on the topic of homosexuality; it included a condition called "constitutional psychopathic inferiority (without psychosis)" that was described as "a large group of pathological personalities" including "sexual perversions". [2] Meanwhile, in the 1935 Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease, homosexuality was classified as a "pathological sexuality" under the category of "psychopathic personality". [3]

DSM-I

When the APA published the DSM-I in 1952, homosexuality was classified as a "sexual deviation" within the larger "sociopathic personality disturbance" category of personality disorders. The sexual deviation diagnosis included "homosexuality, transvestism, pedophilia, fetishism and sexual sadism" as examples. [4]

Four years prior to the publication of the DSM-I, the first Kinsey Report was published by Alfred Kinsey and his fellow researchers, which found that "only 50 percent of the adult population is exclusively heterosexual throughout its adult life," [5] based on a study of 5,300 men, but the psychiatry field was hostile to the Kinsey Report and the implications that same-sex sexual behavior was far more common than mainstream society had previously believed. [6] In 1957, psychologist Evelyn Hooker published the results of a study that compared the happiness and well-adjusted nature of 30 self-identified homosexual men with 30 heterosexual men and found no difference, which similarly stunned the medical community. [7] [6] Hooker argued that researchers who claimed homosexuality was a mental disorder were drawing a false correlation by only studying homosexuals who had a history of treatment for mental illness. Meanwhile, a study of 106 homosexual men by Irving Bieber and other researchers, published in 1962, was used to justify the inclusion of homosexuality as a pathological hidden fear of the opposite sex caused by traumatic parent–child relationships, a view that was influential in the medical profession. [8]

DSM-II

Initial classification

The DSM-II, published in 1968, expanded the "sexual deviation" diagnostic category (now located within the larger category of "personality disorders and certain other nonpsychotic mental disorders") so that different "sexual deviations" were listed under ten individual diagnostic codes: homosexuality, fetishism, pedophilia, transvestitism, exhibitionism, voyeurism, sadism, masochism, other sexual deviation, and unspecified sexual deviation. [9] [3] While the DSM-I and its precursor the Statistical Manual included ambiguity in terms of whether homosexuality was a mental disorder, the DSM-II removed that ambiguity and clearly presented homosexuality and the other "sexual deviations" as mental disorders. [2]

Change to seventh printing

After extensive organizing by gay rights activists during the gay liberation of the 1960s and 1970s, the seventh printing of the DSM-II in 1974 renamed the code "homosexuality" as "sexual orientation disturbance", and added descriptive text that noted that homosexuality "by itself does not constitute a psychiatric disorder" and that the renamed code should be used for "individuals whose sexual interests are directed primarily toward people of the same sex and who are either disturbed by, in conflict with, or wish to change their sexual orientation." [10] This was considered a major victory by gay activists, because it clearly articulated a shift from considering homosexuality a mental disorder to only characterizing people as unwell if their sexual orientation caused them distress. The change was a compromise between competing schools of thought within the psychiatry field: the view that homosexuality was a pathological condition and the view that homosexuality is a normal variation of sexuality. [3] [2]

Background

The activism that resulted in changing the seventh printing of the DSM-II began in earnest in the wake of the Stonewall riots in 1969. [11] Specific protests by gay rights activists against the APA began in 1970, when the organization held its convention in San Francisco. [12] The activists disrupted the conference by interrupting speakers and shouting down and ridiculing psychiatrists who viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder. At the 1971 conference, gay rights activist Frank Kameny, working with the Gay Liberation Front to demonstrate against the convention, grabbed the microphone and yelled: "Psychiatry is the enemy incarnate. Psychiatry has waged a relentless war of extermination against us. You may take this as a declaration of war against you." [12] At the 1972 conference, gay psychiatrist John E. Fryer spoke to the audience about what it was like for the many gay psychiatrists in the APA who had to hide their sexuality due to anti-gay prejudice within the field; he wore a mask and a wig and used a voice distorter to conceal his identity. [13] This activism occurred in the context of a broader anti-psychiatry movement that had come to the fore in the 1960s and was challenging the legitimacy of psychiatric diagnosis. Anti-psychiatry activists protested at the same APA conventions, with some shared slogans and intellectual foundations. [14] [15]

Psychiatrist Robert Spitzer, who served as technical consultant to the DSM-II Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics, became a go-between in the dispute. Spitzer originally believed that homosexuality belonged in the DSM, but after meeting with gay activists, including a secret group of gay APA members later known as the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists, and faced with data from researchers such as Kinsey and Hooker, he drafted the compromise of removing homosexuality itself from the DSM and replacing it with "sexual orientation disturbance". [2] [16] After a vote by the APA board of trustees in December 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, this change was made. [17] Psychiatrist Richard Green, who had argued forcefully in favor of declassifying homosexuality as a mental disorder, viewed Spitzer's insistence on including a diagnosis for homosexuals who were distressed by their sexuality as a poorly disguised attempt to maintain homophobic bias in the DSM, and publicly resigned from the APA nomenclature committee over it. [18] Meanwhile, critics argued that declassifying homosexuality was a result of pressure from gay activists and demanded a referendum among voting members of the APA. The referendum was held in 1974 and the APA's decision was upheld by a 58% majority. [12]

Despite the retention of "sexual orientation disturbance", gay activists celebrated the removal of homosexuality from the APA's list of mental disorders and declared victory. Kameny, now the head of the Mattachine Society of Washington, said, "This represents the culmination of a decade-long battle," and Ronald Gold of the National Gay Task Force declared, "We've won." [19]

The APA published a position statement that urged an end to anti-homosexual discrimination and called for decriminalizing private sexual acts between consenting adults. However, the APA also made it clear that it did not endorse the view that homosexuality was a normal variant of sexuality. [11]

DSM-III

Classification

In the DSM-III, published in 1980, "sexual orientation disorder" was reworked as "ego-dystonic homosexuality" and the overarching categories were reorganized. The DSM-III included the completely new overarching diagnostic category "psychosexual disorders", which was divided into four subcategories:

Ego-dystonic homosexuality was defined as having a desire to be heterosexual but not experiencing heterosexual arousal, or experiencing unwanted or distressing homosexual arousal that gets in the way of being heterosexual. [20]

Background

The decision to include this reworked diagnosis in the DSM-III came after years of continued debate and controversy, both public and private. More and more scientific evidence challenged the assumption that homosexuality was a pathological condition, yet many within the psychiatric field adamantly believed it was. [21] [22] Robert Spitzer was chosen to lead the DSM-III's Task Force on Nomenclature, and he continued to feel that it was important to take "a middle position regarding the pathological status of homosexuality"; nine members of the task force agreed with him and five disagreed, leading to a deadlock. [12] Classifications of "homodysphilia", "dyshomophilia", and "homosexual conflict disorder" were discussed, until finally, "ego-dystonic homosexuality" was proposed, along with a conceptual shift: instead of focusing on distress about being homosexual, the new classification was about a desire to be heterosexual and distress at one's inability to achieve that desire. [3] [12] A proposal to include additional information such as a note about how internalized homophobia can be a contributing factor eventually swayed enough critics; others, including Richard Green and Richard Pillard, remained adamantly opposed to including homosexuality in the DSM in any form, but they were eventually overruled. [12]

Ego-dystonic homosexuality and its predecessor, sexual orientation disturbance, both legitimized sexual conversion therapies. [23] [24]

DSM-III-R

Classification

In 1987, the APA published a major revision of the DSM-III (the DSM-III-R), again under the leadership of Robert Spitzer. In this edition, the "ego-dystonic homosexuality" classification was removed. In its place, "persistent and marked distress about one's sexual orientation" was added as one of three examples of the classification "sexual disorder not otherwise specified". [25] [26] The overarching section was renamed "sexual disorders" and the subsection "gender identity disorders" was moved to a different category—"disorders usually first evident in infancy, childhood, or adolescence"—and the "paraphilias" subsection was slightly reorganized. [25]

Background

Leading up to the publication of the DSM-III-R, it had become clear to more and more people that the inclusion of "sexual orientation disturbance" and later "ego-dystonic homosexuality" in the DSM was the result of political compromises rather than scientific evidence, and that neither diagnosis actually met the definition of a disorder; critics pointed out that by the same logic, short people unhappy with their height could be considered mentally ill. [23] Also influential was that it had been proven that psychological therapies could not "cure" homosexuality. [27] [ tone ]

Just like in 1974 with the substitution of "sexual orientation disturbance" for homosexuality, in 1987 many people saw the removal of "ego-dystonic homosexuality" as the APA removing homosexuality from the DSM, but although the word "homosexuality" was removed, treatment was still provided. [6] [ clarification needed ] Mental health professionals could—and did—still diagnose LGBT people with "sexual disorder not otherwise specified", thanks to the retention of "distress about one's sexual orientation" as part of that diagnostic category. [28]

DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR

No change was made to the "sexual disorder not otherwise specified" category in either the DSM-IV, published in 1994, or the text revision of the manual in 2000 (the DSM-IV-TR). "Persistent and marked distress about sexual orientation" was still included as one of that category's examples. [29] The overarching section of the manual was renamed "sexual and gender identity disorders" and the "gender identity disorders" subsection was moved back into this section.

DSM-5

The DSM-5, published in 2013, does not include any diagnostic category that can be applied to people based on their sexual orientation. Some scholars have argued that only this can be considered "complete declassification" of non-heterosexual sexual orientations as mental disorders. [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</i> American psychiatric classification

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria. It is the main book for the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders in the United States and Australia, while in other countries it may be used in conjunction with other documents. The DSM-5 is considered one of the principal guides of psychiatry, along with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD), and the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. However, not all providers rely on the DSM-5 as a guide, since the ICD's mental disorder diagnoses are used around the world and scientific studies often measure changes in symptom scale scores rather than changes in DSM-5 criteria to determine the real-world effects of mental health interventions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraphilia</span> Atypical sexual attraction

A paraphilia is an experience of recurring or intense sexual arousal to atypical objects, places, situations, fantasies, behaviors, or individuals. It has also been defined as a sexual interest in anything other than a legally consenting human partner. Paraphilias are contrasted with normophilic ("normal") sexual interests, though the definition of what makes a sexual interest normal or atypical remains controversial.

Transvestic fetishism is a psychiatric diagnosis applied to men who are thought to have an excessive sexual or erotic interest in cross-dressing; this interest is often expressed in autoerotic behavior. It differs from cross-dressing for entertainment or other purposes that do not involve sexual arousal. Under the name transvestic disorder, it is categorized as a paraphilia in the DSM-5.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homosexuality and psychology</span> Homosexuality as studied by the field of psychology

The field of psychology has extensively studied homosexuality as a human sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality in the DSM-I in 1952, but that classification came under scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That research and subsequent studies consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as anything other than a natural and normal sexual orientation that is a healthy and positive expression of human sexuality. As a result of this scientific research, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM-II in 1973. Upon a thorough review of the scientific data, the American Psychological Association followed in 1975 and also called on all mental health professionals to take the lead in "removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated" with homosexuality. In 1993, the National Association of Social Workers adopted the same position as the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association, in recognition of scientific evidence. The World Health Organization, which listed homosexuality in the ICD-9 in 1977, removed homosexuality from the ICD-10 which was endorsed by the 43rd World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990.

"Homosexual panic" is a term coined by American psychiatrist Edward J. Kempf in 1920 for a condition of "panic due to the pressure of uncontrollable perverse sexual cravings". Kempf classified this condition as an acute pernicious dissociative disorder, meaning that it involved a disruption in typical perception and memory functions of an individual. In the psychiatrist's honour, the condition has come to also be known as "Kempf's disease". Although homosexuality itself was removed from the APA's DSM in 1973, some form of homosexual panic was retained in the manual until the release of DSM-V in 2013.

Normality is a behavior that can be normal for an individual when it is consistent with the most common behavior for that person. Normal is also used to describe individual behavior that conforms to the most common behavior in society. However, normal behavior is often only recognized in contrast to abnormality. In many cases normality is used to make moral judgements, such that normality is seen as good while abnormality is seen as bad, or conversely normality can be seen as boring and uninteresting. Someone being seen as normal or not normal can have social ramifications, such as being included, excluded or stigmatized by wider society.

Robert Leopold Spitzer was a psychiatrist and professor of psychiatry at Columbia University in New York City. He was a major force in the development of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ray Blanchard</span> American-Canadian sexologist

Ray Milton Blanchard is an American-Canadian sexologist who researches pedophilia, sexual orientation and gender identity. He has found that men with more older brothers are more likely to be gay than men with fewer older brothers, a phenomenon he attributes to the reaction of the mother's immune system to male fetuses. Blanchard has also published research studies on phallometry and several paraphilias, including autoerotic asphyxia. Blanchard also proposed a typology of transsexualism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ego-dystonic sexual orientation</span> Psychiatric diagnosis

Ego-dystonic sexual orientation is a highly controversial mental health diagnosis that was included in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) from 1980 to 1987 and in the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Classification of Diseases (ICD) from 1990 to 2019. Individuals could be diagnosed with ego-dystonic sexual orientation if their sexual orientation or attractions were at odds with their idealized self-image, causing anxiety and a desire to change their orientation or become more comfortable with it. It describes not innate sexual orientation itself, but a conflict between the sexual orientation a person wishes to have and their actual sexual orientation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John E. Fryer</span> Psychiatrist and gay activist (1937–2003)

John Ercel Fryer, M.D. was a prominent American psychiatrist and advocate for gay rights. He is most notably remembered for his impactful speech delivered anonymously at the 1972 American Psychiatric Association (APA) annual conference. Under the pseudonym Dr. Henry Anonymous, Fryer courageously addressed the conferenced, catalyzing the movement to remove homosexuality as a classified mental illness from the APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. In recognition of his significant contributions, the APA established the "John E. Fryer, M.D., Award" in his honor.

The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders, published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP), is a clinical guide used in China for the diagnosis of mental disorders. It is on its third version, the CCMD-3, written in Chinese and English.

The classification of mental disorders, also known as psychiatric nosology or psychiatric taxonomy, is central to the practice of psychiatry and other mental health professions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DSM-5</span> 2013 edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), is the 2013 update to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In 2022, a revised version (DSM-5-TR) was published. In the United States, the DSM serves as the principal authority for psychiatric diagnoses. Treatment recommendations, as well as payment by health care providers, are often determined by DSM classifications, so the appearance of a new version has practical importance. However, not all providers rely on the DSM-5 for planning treatment as the ICD's mental disorder diagnoses are used around the world and scientific studies often measure changes in symptom scale scores rather than changes in DSM-5 criteria to determine the real-world effects of mental health interventions. The DSM-5 is the only DSM to use an Arabic numeral instead of a Roman numeral in its title, as well as the only living document version of a DSM.

Jack Drescher is an American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst known for his work on sexual orientation and gender identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine</span>

Timeline of events related to sexual orientation and medicine

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual relationship disorder</span> Medical condition

Sexual relationship disorder was listed in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Classification of Diseases, the ICD-10, the most widely used diagnostic manual by psychiatrists and psychologists worldwide. It was described as a disorder where a person has difficulties forming or maintaining a sexual relationship because of their gender identity or sexual orientation. In 2014, it was determined that there was no justification for the existence of this mental disorder category, and the diagnosis was not included in the ICD-11, which went into effect in January 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual maturation disorder</span> Medical condition

Sexual maturation disorder was listed in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Classification of Diseases, the ICD-10, the most widely used diagnostic manual by psychiatrists and psychologists worldwide. It was described as a disorder of anxiety or depression related to an uncertainty about one's gender identity or sexual orientation. In 2014, it was determined that there was no justification for the existence of this mental disorder category, and the diagnosis was not included in the ICD-11, which went into effect in January 2022.

"81 Words" is an episode of the popular public radio program, This American Life, which is broadcast from Chicago Public Radio. This episode was originally aired January 18, 2002. The episode is narrated by Alix Spiegel, who was the recipient of the George Foster Peabody Award, the Livingston Award, and the Dupont Award. She won the 2002 Livingston Award in National Reporting for the 204th episode of This American Life, "81 Words". The program is hosted by Ira Glass, who gives the introduction for the episode stating,

"It's just uncanny, I think that's the word. It's just uncanny when something so small, for a moment, for the length of time it takes to sign [he is referring to a pen used to sign major U.S. legal documents] can carry the entire weight of history of a nation. Today's radio program is about something small like that, that was at the epicenter of massive social change in our country for a brief moment."

The history of conversion therapy can be divided broadly into three periods: an early Freudian period; a period of mainstream approval of conversion therapy, when the mental health establishment became the "primary superintendent" of sexuality; and a post-Stonewall period where the mainstream medical profession disavowed conversion therapy.

The medicalisation of sexuality is the existence and growth of medical authority over sexual experiences and sensations. The medicalisation of sexuality is contributed to by the pharmaceutical industry, along with psychiatry, psychology, and biomedical sciences more generally.

References

  1. ↑ Clark, Lee Anna; Cuthbert, Bruce; Lewis-Fernández, Roberto; Narrow, William E.; Reed, Geoffrey M. (2017). "Three Approaches to Understanding and Classifying Mental Disorder: ICD-11, DSM-5 , and the National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 18 (2): 72–145. doi: 10.1177/1529100617727266 . ISSN   1529-1006. PMID   29211974. S2CID   206743519.
  2. 1 2 3 4 De Block, Andreas; Adriaens, Pieter R. (2013). "Pathologizing Sexual Deviance: A History". Journal of Sex Research. 50 (3–4): 276–298. doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.738259. ISSN   0022-4499. PMID   23480073. S2CID   42102752.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Anderson, Joel; Holland, Elise (2015). "The legacy of medicalising 'homosexuality': A discussion on the historical effects of non-heterosexual diagnostic classifications". Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture. 11 (1). doi:10.7790/sa.v11i1.405. ISSN   2203-8469.
  4. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. (1953). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders.
  5. ↑ Kinsey, Alfred C.; Pomeroy, Wardell B.; Martin, Clyde E. (1998). Sexual behavior in the human male. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. p. 656. ISBN   978-0-253-01923-3. OCLC   606987885.
  6. 1 2 3 Wyatt-Nichol, Heather (2014). "Sexual Orientation and Mental Health: Incremental Progression or Radical Change?". Journal of Health and Human Services Administration. 37 (2): 225–241. ISSN   1079-3739. JSTOR   24459694.
  7. ↑ American Psychological Association (28 May 2003). "Being Gay Is Just as Healthy as Being Straight". www.apa.org. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  8. ↑ Edsall, Nicholas C. (2003). Toward Stonewall: Homosexuality and Society in the Modern Western World. University of Virginia Press. ISBN   978-0-8139-2211-9. p. 247
  9. ↑ American Psychological Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2nd ed.).
  10. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. (1973). Homosexuality and sexuality orientation disturbance: Proposed change in DSM-II, 6th printing, page 44. APA Document Reference No. 730008. https://pages.uoregon.edu/eherman/teaching/texts/DSM-II_Homosexuality_Revision.pdf
  11. 1 2 Drescher, Jack (2010). "Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (2): 427–460. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. ISSN   0004-0002. PMID   19838785. S2CID   13062141.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ronald Bayer. (1987). Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis. Princeton University Press.
  13. ↑ Clendinen, Dudley (5 March 2003). "Dr. John Fryer, 65, Psychiatrist Who Said in 1972 He Was Gay". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331.
  14. ↑ McCommon, B. (2006) Antipsychiatry and the Gay Rights Movement Psychiatr Serv 57:1809, December doi : 10.1176/appi.ps.57.12.1809
  15. ↑ Rissmiller, DJ, D.O., Rissmiller, J. (2006) Letter in reply Psychiatr Serv 57:1809-a-1810, December 2006 doi : 10.1176/appi.ps.57.12.1809-a
  16. ↑ Spiegel, Alix; Glass, Ira (18 January 2002). "81 Words". This American Life. Chicago: WBEZ Chicago Public Radio.
  17. ↑ Spitzer, R.L. (1981). "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues". Am J Psychiatry. 138 (2): 210–215. doi:10.1176/ajp.138.2.210. PMID   7457641.
  18. ↑ Bayer, R.; Spitzer, R. L. (1982). "Edited correspondence on the status of homosexuality in DSM-III". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 18 (1): 32–52. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(198201)18:1<32::aid-jhbs2300180105>3.0.co;2-0. ISSN   0022-5061. PMID   7040544.
  19. ↑ "Sick No More". Washington Post. 16 December 1999. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  20. 1 2 American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.).
  21. ↑ Bayer, Ronald (1987), Engelhardt, H. Tristram Jr.; Caplan, Arthur L. (eds.), "Politics, science, and the problem of psychiatric nomenclature: a case study of the American Psychiatric Association referendum on homosexuality", Scientific Controversies (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 381–400, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511628719.018, ISBN   978-0-521-25565-3
  22. ↑ Stoller, Robert J.; Marmor, Judd; Bieber, Irving; Gold, Ronald; Socarides, Charles W.; Green, Richard; Spitzer, Robert L. (1973). "A Symposium: Should Homosexuality Be in the APA Nomenclature?". American Journal of Psychiatry. 130 (11): 1207–1216. doi:10.1176/ajp.130.11.1207. ISSN   0002-953X. PMID   4784866.
  23. 1 2 Drescher, Jack (2015). "Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality". Behavioral Sciences. 5 (4): 565–575. doi: 10.3390/bs5040565 . ISSN   2076-328X. PMC   4695779 . PMID   26690228.
  24. ↑ Vider, Stephen; Byers, David S. (12 February 2015). "A Half-Century of Conflict Over Attempts to 'Cure' Gay People". Time.
  25. 1 2 American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.).
  26. ↑ Mayes, R.; Horwitz, AV. (2005). "DSM-III and the revolution in the classification of mental illness". J Hist Behav Sci. 41 (3): 249–67. doi:10.1002/jhbs.20103. PMID   15981242.
  27. ↑ Cochran, Susan D; Drescher, Jack; Kismödi, Eszter; Giami, Alain; García-Moreno, Claudia; Atalla, Elham; Marais, Adele; Vieira, Elisabeth Meloni; Reed, Geoffrey M (2014). "Proposed declassification of disease categories related to sexual orientation in theInternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems(ICD-11)". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 92 (9): 672–679. doi:10.2471/blt.14.135541. ISSN   0042-9686. PMC   4208576 . PMID   25378758.
  28. ↑ Drescher, Jack (25 September 2009). "Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (2): 427–460. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. ISSN   0004-0002. PMID   19838785. S2CID   13062141.
  29. 1 2 Robles, Rebeca; Real, Tania; Reed, Geoffrey M. (2021). "Depathologizing Sexual Orientation and Transgender Identities in Psychiatric Classifications". Consortium Psychiatricum. 2 (2): 45–53. doi: 10.17816/CP61 . ISSN   2713-2919. S2CID   241240350.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.