Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples

Last updated
Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples
Indian school.jpg
Residential school group photograph, Regina, Saskatchewan, 1908
Location Canada
Date1763-disputed
Target First Nations
Attack type
 Genocide, ethnic cleansing, forced displacement, collective punishment, sexual abuse, starvation, forced conversion
Perpetrators Government of Canada, Catholic Church, and various other Christian denominations.
Motive

The Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples [nb 1] is the genocide and systematic destruction of the Indigenous inhabitants of Canada from colonization to the present day. [7] Throughout the history of Canada, the Canadian government has committed what has variously been described as atrocities, crimes, ethnocide, and genocide, against the Indigenous peoples in Canada. [8] [9]

Contents

Canada is a settler-colonial state "whose sovereignty and political economy is premised on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples and the exploitation of their land base", and therefore various concepts were used as justifications for the genocide since the very beginnings of the federation and its predecessor states. [7] [10] [11] The Canadian government implemented policies such as the Indian Act, residential schools, health-care segregation, displacement and the Sixties Scoop that aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream society while erasing their religious and culture identities. [12] These policies led to the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families, the suppression of Indigenous languages and traditions, and the degradation of Indigenous communities. Other actions highlighted as indicative of genocide include sporadic massacres, the spread of disease, the prohibition of cultural practices, the sterilization of Indigenous women, and the ecological devastation of indigenous territories. [13]

There is debate among scholars and Indigenous people about the exact definition and type of genocide that has occurred. [14] [15] [16] A period of redress began with the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008. [17] This included recognition of past cultural genocide, [18] settlement agreements, [17] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women. [19]

Colonization

Fur traders, in what is now Canada, trading with an Indigenous person in 1777 Fur traders in canada 1777.jpg
Fur traders, in what is now Canada, trading with an Indigenous person in 1777

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. [20] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade. [21] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties. [22] [23] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society. [24] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations. [25]

As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to ninety percent. [26] [27] [28] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity, [28] [29] [30] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency. [31] [32] Surviving Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe racially motivated discrimination from their new colonial societies. [33] More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people. [34] [35] [36] This is further expanded by employing Patrick Wolfe's analysis of settler-colonialism, as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, creating a "structural genocide" of the Indigenous people of Canada. [37]

Beothuk

The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct as a cultural group. It is represented in museum, historical and archaeological records. Carlb-beothuk-museum-2002.jpg
The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct as a cultural group. It is represented in museum, historical and archaeological records.

With the death of Shanawdithit in 1829, [38] the Beothuk people, and the Indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders. [39] The Beothuks' main food sources were caribou, fish, and seals; their forced displacement deprived them of two of these. This led to the over-hunting of caribou, leading to a decrease in the caribou population in Newfoundland. The Beothuks emigrated from their traditional land and lifestyle, attempting to avoid contact with Europeans, [40] into ecosystems unable to support them, causing under-nourishment and, eventually, starvation. [41] [42]

Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk. [15] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out as an unintended consequence of European colonization, others argue that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them. [43] [44]

Such a campaign was explicitly without official sanction after 1759, any such action thereafter being in violation of Governor John Byron's proclamation that "I do strictly enjoin and require all His Majesty's subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages [Beothuk] of the said island of Newfoundland", [45] as well as the subsequent Proclamation issued by Governor John Holloway on July 30, 1807, which prohibited mistreatment of the Beothuk and offered a reward for any information on such mistreatment. [46] Such proclamations seemed to have little effect, as writing in 1766, Governor Hugh Palliser reported to the British secretary of state that "the barbarous system of killing prevails amongst our people towards the Native Indians — whom our People always kill, when they can meet them". [38]

Residential schools

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996, [47] the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, [48] ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes. [49] [50] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance. [51] [52] While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, abuse, and sexual abuse. [53] [54] The negative effects of the residential school system have long been accepted almost unanimously among scholars researching the residential school system, with debate focussing on the motives and intent. [55]

Mohawk Institute Residential School MohawkInstitute-1932.jpg
Mohawk Institute Residential School

Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that." [56] [9] Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men. [57] [58] [59]

Indigenous people of Canada have long referred to the residential school system as genocide, [60] [61] [62] with scholars referring to the system as genocidal since the 1990s. [63] According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. [64] [65] Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide. [66] [67] Others also point to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was adopted into Canadian law in 2010, where article 7 discusses the rights of indigenous people to not be subjected to genocide or "any other act of violence, including forcibly removing children of the group to another group". [68]

A legal case resulted in settlement of CA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. [69] The executive summary of the TRC concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide. [70] [71] This conclusion has been supported by other scholars, including David Bruce MacDonald and Graham Hudson, who also comment that the residential school system may also amount to more than just cultural genocide, [72] laying out specific arguments as to how the residential school system met the dolus specialis requirement of the Genocide Convention. [73] The ambiguity of the phrasing in the TRC report allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The TRC was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a legal responsibility of the Canadian government that would be difficult to prove. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open. [74] [75]

In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system. [76] In July 2022, Pope Francis made a penitential pilgrimage to Canada, and in response to questions from journalists on the flight back to Rome condemned as genocide "taking away children, changing culture, changing mentality, changing traditions, changing a race … an entire culture". [77] [78] In October 2023 the Canadian House of Commons unanimously passed a motion by NDP Member of Parliament Leah Gazan calling on the federal government to recognize "what happened in Canada's Indian residential schools" as "an act of genocide". [79] [80]

Alberta sterilizations

In Alberta the Legislative Assembly passed the Sexual Sterilization Act in 1928 to promote eugenics. [81] With the arrival of the Great Depression in 1929 sterilization efforts increased, especially against Indigenous people and immigrants, due to fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty. [82] Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws – many without their knowledge or consent. [57] [58] [59]


Displacement

Relocation from Inukjuak to Resolute (left arrow) and Grise Fiord (right arrow) Can high arctic relocation.svg
Relocation from Inukjuak to Resolute (left arrow) and Grise Fiord (right arrow)

The High Arctic relocation happened in the context of the Cold War, the federal government forcibly relocated 87 Inuit citizens to the High Arctic as human symbols of Canada's assertion of ownership of the region. The Inuit were told that they would be returned home to Northern Quebec after a year if they wished, but this offer was later withdrawn as it would damage Canada's claims to the High Arctic; they were forced to stay. [83] [ page needed ] In 1993, after extensive hearings, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation. [84] The government paid compensation and in 2010 issued a formal apology. [85]

Missing and murdered Indigenous females

From 2016 to 2019, the Canadian government conducted the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. The final report of the inquiry concluded that the high level of violence directed at First Nations, Inuit, and Metis women and girls is "caused by state actions and inactions rooted in colonialism and colonial ideologies." [86] The National Inquiry commissioners said in the report and publicly that the MMIWG crisis is "a Canadian genocide." [87] It also concluded that the crisis constituted an ongoing "race, identity and gender-based genocide." [88] [89] [90]

External videos
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg B.C.‘s infamous Highway of Tears, CBC Archives, 2:32, 21 June 2006, reported by Miyoung Lee

The MMIWG inquiry used a broader definition of genocide from the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which encompasses "not only acts of commission, but 'omission' as well." [88] The inquiry described the traditional legal definition of genocide as "narrow" and based on the Holocaust. According to the inquiry, "colonial genocide does not conform with popular notions of genocide as a determinate, quantifiable event" and concluded that "these [genocidal] policies fluctuated in time and space, and in different incarnations, are still ongoing." [91]

On June 3, 2019, Luis Almagro, secretary-general of Organization of American States (OAS), asked Foreign Affairs Minister Chrystia Freeland to support the creation of an independent probe into the MMIWG allegation of Canadian 'genocide' since Canada had previously supported "probes of atrocities in other countries" such as Nicaragua in 2018. [92] On June 4, in Vancouver, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that, "Earlier this morning, the national inquiry formally presented their final report, in which they found that the tragic violence that Indigenous women and girls have experienced amounts to genocide." [88]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The word Indigenous is capitalized when used in a Canadian context. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

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