The homeland of the Neutral people (left) was between the southeastern shores of Lake Huron, the western shores of Lake Ontario, and the northern shores of Lake Erie in Canada.
The Neutral Confederacy (also Neutral Nation, Neutral people, or Attawandaron) was a tribal confederation[1] of Iroquoian peoples. Its heartland was in the floodplain of the Grand River in what is now Ontario, Canada. At its height, its wider territory extended toward the shores of lakes Erie, Huron, and Ontario, as well as the Niagara River in the east. To the northeast were the neighbouring territories of Huronia and the Petun Country, which were inhabited by other Iroquoian confederacies from which the term Neutrals Attawandaron was derived. The five-nation Iroquois Confederacy was across Lake Ontario to the southeast.
Like others of Iroquoian language and culture, the tribes would raid and feud with fellow Iroquoian tribes. They were generally wary of rival Algonquian-speaking peoples, such as those who inhabited Canada to the East, along the St. Lawrence Valleybasin. Iroquoian tribes were later known to historians for the fierce ways in which they waged war.[2] A largely agrarian society, the Neutral Confederacy developed farmsteads that were admired and marveled over by European leaders writing reports to their sponsors.[2]
The Neutral Confederacy were primarily engaged in hunting; they traded with others through furs and animal skins.[3] The largest group identified as Chonnonton[1] ('keepers of the deer'), partly because of their practice of herding deer into pens, a strategy used while hunting.[citation needed] Another group, the Onguiaahra ('near the big waters' or possibly 'the strait' – or something else, see Niagara Falls §Toponymy), populated the more southern Niagara Peninsula and allegedly account for the origin of the word "Niagara".[4] The Chonnonton territory contained large deposits of flint, which was a valuable resource for sharp tools, fire-starting and, eventually, firearms, which, as a primary resource, allowed them to trade simultaneously with often-warring Huron and Iroquois tribes.
Since they were not at war with the Huron or the Iroquois in 1600, Jesuits travelling in the area of what is now Hamilton, the lower Grand Valley and Niagara, called them the Neutrals. However, the confederacy had feuds with an Algonkian people called the Mascouten or "Fire Nation", who were believed to live in what is present-day Michigan. In 1616, the Neutral Confederacy had an estimated 40 villages and 4,000 warriors.[5] In 1641, after a serious epidemic, the Jesuits counted 40 Neutral villages, with about 12,000 people.[6]
The nation was unable to survive the changes. In the 1650s, after the Iroquois Wars,[specify] they dispersed. One source indicates that the reasons included "wars, diseases and famine". The remaining members became a part of various other Iroquoian nations. Historical records kept by the French do not discuss the Neutrals as a nation or confederacy after 1672.[1]
Names
The Neutrals' name for themselves was Chonnonton, or 'people of the deer',[1] or, more precisely, 'the people who tend or manage deer'.[7] They were called ''Attawandaron'' by the Huron, meaning 'people whose speech is awry or a little different'.[1] The Iroquois called them Atirhagenrat (Atirhaguenrek) and Rhagenratka. Some of the tribes of the Neutral confederacy included the Aondironon, the Wenrehronon, and the Ongniaahraronon.[8] They spoke Iroquoian languages but were culturally distinct from the Iroquois and competed with them for the same resources.
The French called the people "Neutral" (French: la Nation neutre) because they tried to remain neutral in the many wars[2] between the confederacy of the Huron tribes and the nations of the Iroquois Confederacy.[9]
Geography
During the late 16th and the early 17th centuries, the territory of the Attawandaron, as they were called by the Huron Nation, was mostly within the limits of present-day southern Ontario. The Museum of Ontario Archaeology summarizes that territory as follows:
they "inhabited dozens of villages in Southwestern Ontario stretching along the north shore of Lake Erie from the Niagara Peninsula to the Detroit River, perhaps as far north as Toronto in the east and Goderich in the west."[10]
They had population concentrations on the Niagara Peninsula and in the vicinity of the present-day communities of Hamilton and Milton, Ontario.[11] In addition to this main territory, there was a single population cluster to the east, across the Niagara River, near modern-day Buffalo, New York, which was west of the Wenro people.
– Souharissen was the warrior chief who lived in a village called Ounontisatan, which was visited by the French in 1625-1626. His trade agreement with the Neutral people provided protection for them by his warriors.[12] The principal headman took on and defeated the Fire Nation in what is present-day Michigan. The Recollect priest Joseph de la Roche Daillon lived with him for five months in the winter of 1626–1627. Daillon visited 28 Neutral villages, including the capital, which the French referred to as Nôtre Dame des Anges. The fertile flats of the various oxbows that Big Creek makes three miles from its mouth at Grand River, were ideal for long-term settlement. Noble uses the term "Neutralia" to designate the concentration of Iroquoian-speaking natives in the area.
During their travels, Jean de Brébeuf and Pierre Joseph Marie Chaumonot gave each Neutral village a Christian name. The only ones that are mentioned in their writings were Kandoucho, or All Saints, the nearest to the Huron Nation; Onguioaahra, on the Niagara River; Teotongniaton or St. William, in the centre of their country; and Khioetoa, or St. Michel (near what is now Windsor, Ontario).[13]
Reville described their territory as having been heavily forested and full of "wild fruit trees of vast variety," with nut trees, berry bushes, and wild grape vines. "Elk, caribou, and black bear; deer, wolves, foxes, martens and wild cats filled the woods."[14]
According to the City of Waterloo, Ontario, the indigenous people who lived in the area in the precontact era included the Neutral Confederacy.[15] In 2020, a site in nearby Kitchener, Ontario was found to include artifacts from an Iroquioan village that was inhabited circa 1300 to 1600. Archeologists found some 35,000 objects including stone tools and a 4,000 year old arrowhead.[16] Another source states that the site "is among a cluster of Attawandaron villages in this part of the region".[17] In 1976, a Neutral Confederacy cemetery was unearthed in Grimsby, Ontario.[5] The area that now comprises Morriston in Puslinch, Ontario is said to have been inhabited by the Neutral Confederacy, in a village of 4,000.[18] This region may have had the largest Neutral Confederacy settlement in Ontario, at one time.[19]
Onondaga chert was plentiful in Neutral lands due to the presence of the Onondaga Limestone formation. This tool stone was also available to the Five Nations Iroquois in their own lands, but not to other neighbouring peoples. The Neutral territory marked the furthest northern and western extent of useable chert deposits, even though the Onondaga Limestone runs further.[20]
History
The Neutrals had an alliance with the Wenrohronon, also Iroquoian-language people, to defend against the powerful Iroquois Five Nations Confederacy, who were also Iroquoian speakers. That dissolved in 1639, with devastating effects, particularly to the Wenrohronon. The Wenrohronon made an alliance with the Huron, who were located farther away and could not offer much support.[21]
Traveling south from Midland, Ontario, Étienne Brûlé passed through the Attawandaron territory circa 1615 and spent a winter among the Nation, during 1625–1626.[22] A Franciscan Récollet, Father Joseph de La Roche Daillon, spent time with the Nation in 1626 and estimated the population as 40,000 at that time.[23] About 14 years later, Brébeuf and Chaumonot visited 18 Neutral Confederacy settlements and stayed in ten villages. By that time, the estimated population was only "about 12,000 people and 4,000 warriors in about 40 villages and hamlets".[24]
After destroying the Hurons, the Iroquois attacked the Neutrals. Around 1650, during a period that is now loosely referred to as the Beaver Wars, referring to the theft of furs, the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on the Attawandaron.[13][25] Some historians state that the Iroquois destroyed the Neutral society, which ended as a separate entity in 1651.[26] However, the Neutral population had already been reduced by diseases such as smallpox and measles carried by Europeans.[27] By 1652, the Iroquois had also destroyed the Huron, Petun and Erie Nations.[28] Some of the Neutrals were incorporated into Seneca villages[8] in upstate New York, and others were absorbed into various other societies.[29] The Kenjockety family, one of the last known families to trace their ethnicity to the Neutrals,[30][31] still lives among the Senecas.
Anthropologist Jackes discussed the year 1651 as particularly significant: "during the final Iroquois onslaught...the Neutral fled into the woods and dispersed for the last time ... The years of famine and disease no doubt contributed to the rout".[24]
The last reference to the Neutrals as an independent society is from the fall of 1653.[26] A historical mention in 1864 refers to the "Huron de la nation neuter" and "Hurons neutres" (neutral Hurons).[8]
Society and culture
The Neutral Confederacy had much in common with the Petun Nation and may have had shared ancestry.[32] The Jesuit Relations in 1652 describes tattooing among the Petun (also called the Tobacco Nation)[6] as well as the Neutrals: "And this (tattooing) in some nations is so common that in the one which we called the Tobacco, and... the Neutral. I know not whether a single individual was found, who was not painted in this manner, on some part of the body."[33]
The Museum of Ontario Archeology describes the society as "semi-nomadic", living in villages for about 20 years before abandoning a site after depleting the game and the soil of the area. A historian in 1997 stated that the Nation "also made use of hamlets, agricultural field cabins, specialized camps ... and cemeteries.[34] Another source describes the Neutrals as a "hunter-gatherer society who lived in longhouses that sheltered multiple families".[35] Research conducted by anthropologist Mary Jackes states that they remained neutral "in the conflicts between the Iroquois from south of the Great Lakes and the Ontario Iroquoians who lived to the north" and thrived through active trading instead of war, although the Huron nation aggressively worked to prevent trade between the Neutrals and the French.[36]
The chief of 28 villages, villas, and towns in the last years of the Neutral confederacy was named Tsouharissen or Souharissen[8] ("Child of the Sun") who led several raids against the Mascouten (or "The Fire Nation"), who lived in territory in present-day Michigan and Ohio. A 1627 report called him the chief of all of the nation (Neutrals).[29] Tsouharissen died around 1646.[1] Within a generation (by the early 1670s), all of the nearby first nations, the Erie, the Huron, Neutrals, Tobacco tribes, and even the fierce Susquehannocks would all fall between rampaging epidemic diseases[2] or in the bloody Beaver Wars between themselves[2] and/or to the last tribe standing with any significant military power,[2] the Iroquois.
Flintworking and trade
The Neutrals quarried Onondaga chert from the Onondaga Limestone formation in their lands. Prior to European contact, they used this chert as a tool stone for arrowheads, bifaces, and other weapons and tools. This extended into the protohistoric and post-contact periods, and has been documented at sites associated with the Onondaga, Oneida, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians.[20] It was superior for toolmaking to other local chert varieties around the St. Lawrence Lowlands.[20]
That important resource was used to make spearheads and arrowheads and so gave the Neutrals the power to maintain their neutrality.[13] Once the neighbours began receiving firearms through trade with the Europeans, however, the possession of the flint grounds was much less of an advantage. Flints were still used in trade for the flintlocks on guns. The Neutral continued to trade commodities such as maize, tobacco, and black squirrel and other high-grade furs for steel axes, glass beads, cloaks, conch shells, gourd containers, and firearms.[37][5]
Records left by Jesuit priests in the 1600s indicate that the Neutral language was similar to Huron and so was a dialect of Iroquoian. They believed that all three groups had once been a part of a single group.[38]
Their neighbours, the Wendat (Wyandot, or Huron) Nation referred to the Neutrals (Chonnonton) impolitely as "Attawandaron," meaning "Those whose speech is awry" because their dialect was different. (Apparently, the Chonnonton referred to the Wendat by the same term.) Because the language of the Neutral Confederacy has been extinct for more than three centuries, little is known about the Neutrals' language. Mithun (1979:145, 188–189)[39] cites Jesuits pointing out that the Neutral language was different from the Wendat language, in that the Neutrals were "vne Nation differente de langage, au moins en plusieurs choses" (Thwaites 21.188)[40] / "a Nation different in language, at least in many respects" (Thwaites 21.189).[40] Mithun further cites work by Roy Wright (Mithun 1979:160)[39] where the latter notes from the Neutral name given to Chaumonot that the Neutral language did not have sound changes that distinguish Wendat from other Northern Iroquoian languages. Hanzeli (1969),[41] referencing Thwaites (21:228–230),[40][note 1] notes Brébeuf and Chaumonot considered Neutral different enough from Wendat to write a separate Neutral grammar and dictionary, now lost.
The Museum of Ontario Archaeology in London, Ontario, is located adjacent to the Lawson site. It is another 500-year-old Neutral village which has been under study since the early 1900s. An Ontario historical plaque commemorates the site, which was occupied by Neutrals in the 1500s.[43] About 1000 to 2000 people lived in longhouses in the fortified community. Scientific excavation was first completed in 1921–1923, when the site was owned by the Lawson family. The searches have recovered 30,000 artifacts and the remains of 19 longhouses.[44] Some of the longhouses and the pallisade have been reconstructed.[45]
The McMaster University professor William Noble has excavated and documented the existence of many villages southwest of Hamilton, comprising a Neutral Confederacy, which he believes to have been centred at the Walker site and was presided over by the chief Souharissen.[46] Noble was instrumental in excavating and documenting other Neutral sites in Thorold, Grimsby, and Binbrook. Reports from those and other Southern Ontario sites near Milton (Crawford Lake) and Oakville have indicated that the Neutral Confederacy hunted not only deer but also elk, moose, beaver, raccoons, squirrels, black bear, fox and muskrat. The remains of catfish, whitefish, salmon and trout were also common at many of the sites.[47]
In 1983–1985, another site was excavated. One of the largest Attawandaron villages, the location covered 13 acres of the Badenoch section of Puslinch, on the east side of Morriston, Ontario.[48] The estimated population of the Ivan Elliot site was 4,000; the Neutrals lived in longhouses and used the village for about 20 years.[27] Another nearby site, on the McPhee farm, owned by Raymond Reid, was excavated in 1983. The village had a population of about 1,000 around 1500–1530.[27]
The Neutral Confederacy decline and eventual end can be attributed to genocide. The final catastrophe that led to its end by the early 1650s was investigated by the archaeologist Mary Jackes. The demise of the Neutral Confederacy occurred in spite of reports by the French, who first met it, "in 1610 as strong, healthy and numerous. They lived in the most fertile and warmest part of Ontario. They were determined to remain neutral in the conflicts between the Iroquois from south of the Great Lakes and the Ontario Iroquoians who lived to the north of the Neutral. They throve on trade, rather than war."[5] Jackes re-examined French reports including the Jesuit Relations and the artefacts found in the Grimsby site.[5]
When grounds were prepared for a new housing development in Grimsby, Ontario, in 1976, a Neutral Confederacy burial site was uncovered in sheltered embayment of the Niagara Escarpment.[5] The excavation by Kenyon was closed after only two months in 1977, and the skeletons were reburied near the original site. It was estimated that over 100 bodies were recovered at the time. "Natural disruption, disease, famine and years of severe weather would have been sufficient to begin population decline. Intensifying war, with many killed, taken captive or forced to become refugees, led to almost complete population collapse."[49] Jackes suggested that this burial site "had significance and that it was a place of refuge... especially for women and children."[50]
The Wyandot people are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of the present-day United States and Canada. Their Wyandot language belongs to the Iroquoian language family.
The Mohawk, also known by their own name, Kanien'kehà:ka, are an Indigenous people of North America and the easternmost nation of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy.
The Beaver Wars, also known as the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars, were a series of conflicts fought intermittently during the 17th century in North America throughout the Saint Lawrence River valley in Canada and the Great Lakes region which pitted the Iroquois against the Hurons, northern Algonquians and their French allies. As a result of this conflict, the Iroquois destroyed several confederacies and tribes through warfare: the Hurons or Wendat, Erie, Neutral, Wenro, Petun, Susquehannock, Mohican and northern Algonquins whom they defeated and dispersed, some fleeing to neighbouring peoples and others assimilated, routed, or killed.
Wyandot is the Iroquoian language traditionally spoken by the people known as Wyandot or Wyandotte, descended from the Tionontati. It is considered a sister to the Wendat language, spoken by descendants of the Huron-Wendat Confederacy. It was last spoken, before its revival, by members located primarily in Oklahoma, United States, and Quebec, Canada. Linguists have traditionally considered Wyandot as a dialect or modern form of Wendat.
The Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking.
Sainte-Marie among the Hurons was a French Jesuit settlement in Huronia or Wendake, the land of the Wendat, near modern Midland, Ontario, from 1639 to 1649. It was the first European settlement in what is now the province of Ontario. Eight missionaries from Sainte-Marie were martyred, and were canonized by the Catholic Church in 1930. Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920. A reconstruction of the mission now operates as a living museum.
Wendake is the current name for two urban reserves, Wendake 7 and Wendake 7A, of the Huron-Wendat Nation in the Canadian province of Quebec. They are enclaves entirely surrounded by the La Haute-Saint-Charles borough of Quebec City, within the former city of Loretteville. One of the Seven Nations of Canada, the settlement was formerly known as Village-des-Hurons, and also as (Jeune)-Lorette.
The Huron-Wendat Nation is an Iroquoian-speaking nation that was established in the 17th century. In the French language, used by most members of the First Nation, they are known as the Nation Huronne-Wendat. The French gave the nickname “Huron” to the Wendat, from the French word "hure" meaning “boar's head” because of the hairstyle of Huron men, who had their hair standing in bristles on their heads. Wendat (Quendat) was their confederacy name, meaning “people of the island” or "dwellers on a peninsula."
Kandoucho, was one of 28 villages of the Neutral Nation, or Attawandaron, in Southern Ontario in the 17th century and the home base for one of their chiefs, Tsohahissen or Souharissen. It was known to the Jesuit missionaries of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons as the village of All Saints.
The Erie people were an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands historically living on the south shore of Lake Erie. An Iroquoian-speaking tribe, they lived in what is now western New York, northwestern Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio before 1658. Their nation was almost exterminated in the mid-17th century by five years of prolonged warfare with the powerful neighboring Iroquois for helping the Huron in the Beaver Wars for control of the fur trade. Captured survivors were adopted or enslaved by the Iroquois.
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were an Iroquoian Indigenous people who existed until about the late 16th century. They concentrated along the shores of the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the American states of New York and northernmost Vermont. They spoke Laurentian languages, a branch of the Iroquoian family.
The Petun, also known as the Tobacco people or Tionontati, were an indigenous Iroquoian people of the woodlands of eastern North America. Their last known traditional homeland was south of Lake Huron's Georgian Bay, in what is today's Canadian province of Ontario.
The Wenrohronon or Wenro people were an Iroquoian indigenous nation of North America, originally residing in present-day western New York, who were conquered by the Confederation of the Five Nations of the Iroquois in two decisive wars between 1638–1639 and 1643. This was likely part of the Iroquois Confederacy campaign against the Neutral people, another Iroquoian-speaking tribe, which lived across the Niagara River. This warfare was part of what was known as the Beaver Wars, as the Iroquois worked to dominate the lucrative fur trade. They used winter attacks, which were not usual among Native Americans, and their campaigns resulted in attrition of both the larger Iroquoian confederacies, as they had against the numerous Huron.
The Iroquois, also known as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the endonym Haudenosaunee are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of Native Americans and First Nations peoples in northeast North America. They were known by the French during the colonial years as the Iroquois League, and later as the Iroquois Confederacy, while the English simply called them the "Five Nations". The peoples of the Iroquois included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. After 1722, the Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora people from the southeast were accepted into the confederacy, from which point it was known as the "Six Nations".
The protohistoric period of the state of West Virginia in the United States began in the mid-sixteenth century with the arrival of European trade goods. Explorers and colonists brought these goods to the eastern and southern coasts of North America and were brought inland by native trade routes. This was a period characterized by increased intertribal strife, rapid population decline, the abandonment of traditional life styles, and the extinction and migrations of many Native American groups.
The Draper Site is a precontact period Huron-Wendat ancestral village located on a tributary of West Duffins Creek in present-day Pickering, Ontario, approximately 35 kilometres northeast of Toronto. The site is found in a wooded area on existing farmland and may be reached by walking from the end of North Road.
The Ratcliff or Baker Hill Site is a 16th-century Huron-Wendat ancestral village located on one of the headwater tributaries of the Rouge River on the south side of the Oak Ridges Moraine in present-day Whitchurch–Stouffville, approximately 25 kilometers north of Toronto. The Ratcliff Site is located on the east side of Highway 48, south of Bloomington Road in Whitchurch–Stouffville. The ravine on the village site was infilled during the early 1950s to allow for the expansion of a neighboring quarry.
Neutral or Neutral Huron was the Iroquoian language spoken by the Neutral Nation.
Huronia is a historical region in the province of Ontario, Canada. It is positioned between lakes Simcoe, Ontario, and Huron. Similarly to the latter, it takes its name from the Wendat or Huron, an Iroquoian-speaking people, who lived there from prehistoric times until 1649 during the Beaver Wars when they were defeated and displaced by the Five Nations of the Iroquois who lived in New York.
The Iroquoian peoples are an ethnolinguistic group of peoples from eastern North America. Their traditional territories, often referred to by scholars as Iroquoia, stretch from the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in the north, to modern-day North Carolina in the south.
1 2 Mithun, Marianne (1979). "Iroquoian". In Campbell, Lyle; Mithun, Marianne (eds.). The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. University of Texas Press. pp.133–212.
1 2 3 Thwaites, Reuben G. (1896–1901). Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. Burrows Brothers.
↑ Hanzeli, Victor Egon (1969). Missionary Linguistics in New France: a Study of Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Descriptions of American Indian Languages. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN3-11-099521-2.
↑ (p. 228) "Ce fut sans doute vne prouidence de Dieu toute speciale, que le retardemẽt des Peres en ce lieu: car en vingt cinq iours qu'ils demeurerent en cette cabane, ils eurent le moyen d'ajuster le Dictionnaire, & les Peuples [sc. Regles] de la langue Huronne, à celle de ces Peuples, & faire vn ouurage qui seul meritoit qu'on fist vn voyage de plusieurs années dans le païs: nos Sauuages se plaisans beaucoup plus auec ceux qui parlent leur propre langue, qu'auec ceux qui n'en font qu'approcher, qu'ils tiennent iusques là pour estrangers." / (pp. 229–230) "The delay of the Fathers in this place was, doubtless, an exceptional providence of God: for, in the twenty-five days that they remained in this cabin, they were able to harmonize the Dictionary and the Syntax of the Huron language with those of these Tribes, and accomplish a work which of itself would deserve that one make a stay of several years in the country, – as our Savages take much more pleasure in those who speak their own language than in those who only attempt it, and whom they consider for that reason as strangers."
Engelbrecht, William; Jamieson, Bruce (2016). "St. Lawrence Iroquoian Projectile Points: A Regional Perspective". Archaeology of Eastern North America. 44. Eastern States Archaeological Federation: 81–98. JSTOR44808365.
Garrad, Charles (2014). Pilon, Jean-Luc; Fox, William (eds.). Petun to Wyandot: The Ontario Petun from the Sixteenth Century. Mercury Series. University of Ottawa Press. ISBN978-0-7766-2144-9.
Cooper, Martin S. (2016). "Chapter 11: 'In Order to Bring Them to Trade'". In Loewen, Brad; Chapdelaine, Claude (eds.). Contact in the 16th Century: Networks Among Fishers, Foragers and Farmers. Mercury Series. University of Ottawa Press. pp.257–268. doi:10.2307/j.ctt22zmcgk.17.
Jamieson, Susan M. (1981). "Economics and Ontario Iroquoian Social Organization". Canadian Journal of Archaeology (5). Canadian Archaeological Association: 19–30. JSTOR41058597.
Noble, William C. (1984). "Historic Neutral Iroquois Settlement Patterns". Canadian Journal of Archaeology. 8 (1). Canadian Archaeological Association: 3–27. JSTOR41102288.
Noble, William C. (1985). "Tsouharissen's Chiefdom: An Early Historic 17th Century Neutral Iroquoian Ranked Society". Canadian Journal of Archaeology. 9 (2). Canadian Archaeological Association: 131–146. JSTOR41102340.
Prevec, Rosemary; Noble, William C. (1983). "Historic Neutral Faunal Utilization". Ontario Archaeology. 39. Ontario Archaeological Society: 41–56.
Ridley, Frank (1961). Archaeology of the Neutral Indian. Port Credit, Ontario: Etobicoke Historical Society.
Stewart, Frances L.; Finlayson, William D. (2000). "Subsistence at the Irving-Johnston Village and the Question of Deer Tending by the Neutrals". Canadian Journal of Archaeology. 24 (1). Canadian Archaeological Association: 17–40. JSTOR41058127.
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