Land defender

Last updated
2016 "Stand with Standing Rock" march. Slogans include "We are here to protect" and "Defend the land." Stand with Standing Rock SF Nov 2016 13.jpg
2016 "Stand with Standing Rock" march. Slogans include "We are here to protect" and "Defend the land."

A land defender, land protector, or environmental defender is an activist who works to protect ecosystems and the human right to a safe, healthy environment. [1] [2] [3] Often, defenders are members of Indigenous communities who are protecting property rights of ancestral lands in the face of expropriation, pollution, depletion, or destruction. [1] [4]

Contents

Land and its resources may be considered sacred by Indigenous peoples, and caring for land is considered a duty that honors ancestors, current peoples, and future generations. [5]

Land defenders face severe persecution from powerful political and corporate alliances that profit from resource extraction. which in turn may cause pollution. The United Nations Human Rights Council determined that land defenders are "among the human rights defenders who are most exposed and at risk." [1]

Etymology

Land and water defenders of the Standing Rock Indian Reservation in 2016.

During the 2016 Dakota Access Pipeline protests, members of the Standing Rock Indian Reservation blocked the construction of the pipeline to protect the tribe's land and water supply. This grassroots effort led to hundreds of arrests and clashes with the police and National Guard soldiers. Negative articles described the Indigenous land defenders as "protesters," a term denounced by many environmental activists.

Environmental activist and actor Dallas Goldtooth of the Indigenous Environmental Network has criticized the term "protester," stating the word "protester" is negative and implies that Native people are angry, violent, or overprotective of resources. [6]

Instead, members of the movement refer to themselves as "land defenders," a term that emphasizes pacifism and responsibility to care for ancestral lands which may be part of the defender's heritage. [7]

Inuit Labrador land protector Denise Cole has stated, "I am very much a believer when I take my medicines, when I take my drum, what colonial law would call protesting is very much what I consider is ceremony." [8]

History

Deadly land conflicts in Honduras date back to the early 1990s. [9]

The Dakota Access Pipeline protests in 2016.

The occupation of the Atlanta Forest by self-described forest defenders [10] such as Tortuguita, & the broader 'Defend Atlanta Forest' movement to prevent the building of the Atlanta Public Safety Training Center within it. [11] (2022–present)

Role and activism

Land defenders play an active and increasingly visible role in actions intended to protect, honour, and make visible the importance of land. There are strong connections between the water protector movement, land defender movement, and Indigenous environmental activism. [12] [13] Land defenders resist the installation of pipelines, fossil fuel industries, [14] destruction of territory for development such as agriculture or housing, and resource extraction activities such as fracking because these actions can lead to the degradation of land, destruction of forest, and disruption of habitat. [15] [16] Land defenders resist activities that harm land, especially across Indigenous territories and their work is tied to human rights. [17] Yazzie points to the resistance tactics of Diné land defenders and their anti-capitalist and anti-development stance on resource extraction as being highly connected to the longstanding traditions of Diné resistance. [18]

Activism can come in the form of the erection of blockades on reserve lands or traditional territories to block corporations from resource extraction activities. [19] [20] [21] Water and land protectors also erect camps as a way to occupy traditional territories and strengthen cultural ties. Land defenders also work through legal frameworks such as government court systems in effort to keep control of traditional territories. [5] [17] Civil disobedience actions taken by land defenders, are frequently criminalized and some have argued subject to heavier policing and violence. [22] [23]

Women are integral to the success of the movement, as they are often land defenders visible at the front of blockades and in resistance protests. [24]

Dangers facing land defenders

Global Witness reported 1,922 murders of land defenders in 57 countries between 2002 and 2019. [1] 40% of the victims were Indigenous, [25] despite making up 6% of the global population. [26] Documentation of this violence is also incomplete.

In 2020, murders of land defenders hit a record high of 227. [27]

U.N. Special Rapporteur David R. Boyd has asked, "How can we protect the extraordinary diversity of life on Earth if we cannot protect environmental defenders?" [28] He has further stated that as many as one hundred land defenders are intimidated, arrested or otherwise harassed for every one that is killed. [1]

Land defenders often face perilous conditions in opposition to state powers, resource corporations such as gas or mining corporations, others seeking to develop land or extinguish Indigenous land rights. [29] [30] American environmentalist Bill McKibben has stated, "[Defenders are] at risk because they find themselves living on or near something that some corporation is demanding. That demand – the demand for the highest possible profit, the quickest possible timeline, the cheapest possible operation – seems to translate eventually into the understanding, somewhere, that the troublemaker must go." [31]

Middeldorp and Le Billon have pointed to the dangers faced by land defenders, particularly in authoritarian regimes. In their 2018 article on the topic the point to the killings of several land defenders in Honduras. [29] There, paramilitaries in the Aguán valley were sent to infiltrate and murder key lands rights activists to undermine group efforts. [9] One may et al connect the suppression of Indigenous land rights and a history of intimidation, violent tactics and murder against land defenders to economic development and "land grabs" in colonial nation states. [32]

The Canadian national police force, the RCMP, were prepared to use deadly force against land defenders in a 2019 protest in British Columbia. [33]

Dunlop connects acts of violence against land defenders in countries such as Mexico as retaliation for resistance to economic development and resource extraction. [34]

The human rights organization Global Witness reported that 164 land defenders were killed in 2018 in countries such as the Philippines, Brazil, India, and Guatemala. [35] This same report stated a significant number of the people killed, injured, and threatened were Indigenous. [35] Le Billon and Lujala report that at least 1734 environmental and land defenders were killed between 2002 and 2018 and that Indigenous people are most at risk, numbering more than a third of land defenders killed. [36] The UN has reported that many land protectors are labelled as terrorists by state governments in an effort to discredit their claims. [37] Such labelling can create dangerous conditions for those working to protect land rights. [37]

Yale Environment 360 reported that at least 212 environmental campaigners and land defenders were murdered in 2019. [38] Over half of the murders reported in 2019 took place in Colombia and the Philippines. [38] [39]

Amnesty International has called attention to the dangers facing those seeking to protect the earth, water, and communities, calling Latin America the most dangerous location for land defenders. [40] [41] The Environmental Defence Fund has reported that over 1700 defenders have been killed with less than 10% of those responsible brought to justice. [42] The Extinction Rebellion (XR) has worked to bring attention to the situation of land defenders and have honoured those who have been killed [43] and the work of land defenders has been linked to climate justice initiatives such as Climate Strike Canada. [44]

Land defenders who have been killed

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmentalist</span> Someone who supports the goals of the environmental movement

An environmentalist is a person who is concerned with and/or advocates for the protection of the environment. An environmentalist can be considered a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement, "a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities". An environmentalist is engaged in or believes in the philosophy of environmentalism or one of the related philosophies.

Environmental justice or eco-justice, is a social movement to address environmental injustice, which occurs when poor or marginalized communities are harmed by hazardous waste, resource extraction, and other land uses from which they do not benefit. The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure to environmental harm is inequitably distributed.

Today, environmental problems in the Philippines include pollution, mining and logging, deforestation, threats to environmental activists, dynamite fishing, landslides, coastal erosion, biodiversity loss, extinction, global warming and climate change. Due to the paucity of extant documents, a complete history of land use in the archipelago remains unwritten. However, relevant data shows destructive land use increased significantly in the eighteenth century when Spanish colonialism enhanced its extraction of the archipelago's resources for the early modern global market. The Philippines is projected to be one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change, which would exacerbate weather extremes. As the Philippines lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to natural disasters, like earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. In 2021, the Philippines ranked the fourth most affected country from "weather-related loss events", partly due to the close proximity of major infrastructure and residential areas to the coast and unreliable government support. One of the most devastating typhoons to hit the archipelago was Typhoon Haiyan, known locally as Yolanda, in 2013 that killed 6,300 people and left 28,689 injured. Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1999, the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, the Climate Change Act of 2009 to address environmental issues. The country is also a signatory to the Paris Agreement. However, research has found that outside of cities, the general public doesn't feel equally informed. Environmental activists and land defenders, consisting mostly of Indigenous communities who have been attempting to bring attention to the environmental issues in the country have been met with violence or murder. As a result, the Philippines has been ranked one of the most dangerous places in the world for environmental activists.

A human rights defender or human rights activist is a person who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights. They can be journalists, environmentalists, whistleblowers, trade unionists, lawyers, teachers, housing campaigners, participants in direct action, or just individuals acting alone. They can defend rights as part of their jobs or in a voluntary capacity. As a result of their activities, human rights defenders (HRDs) are often subjected to reprisals including smears, surveillance, harassment, false charges, arbitrary detention, restrictions on the right to freedom of association, physical attack, and even murder. In 2020, at least 331 HRDs were murdered in 25 countries. The international community and some national governments have attempted to respond to this violence through various protections, but violence against HRDs continues to rise. Women human rights defenders and environmental human rights defenders face greater repression and risks than human rights defenders working on other issues.

Isidro Baldenegro López was a farmer and community leader of Mexico's indigenous Tarahumara people in Sierra Madre and an environmental activist who fought against unregulated logging in his region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guajajara</span> Indigenous people in the Brazilian state of Maranhão

The Guajajara are an indigenous people in the Brazilian state of Maranhão. They are one of the most numerous indigenous groups in Brazil, with an estimated 13,100 individuals living on indigenous land.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Colombia</span>

Colombia loses 2,000 km2 of forest annually to deforestation, according to the United Nations in 2003. Some suggest that this figure is as high as 3,000 km2 due to illegal logging in the region. Deforestation results mainly from logging for timber, small-scale agricultural ranching, mining, development of energy resources such as hydro-electricity, infrastructure, cocaine production, and farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Berta Cáceres</span> Honduran environmental activist and indigenous leader (1971–2016)

Berta Isabel Cáceres Flores was a Honduran (Lenca) environmental activist, indigenous leader, co-founder and coordinator of the Council of Popular and Indigenous Organizations of Honduras (COPINH). She won the Goldman Environmental Prize, one of the most prestigious awards for environmental activism, in 2015 for "a grassroots campaign that successfully pressured the world's largest dam builder to pull out of the Agua Zarca Dam" at the Río Gualcarque.

The Council of Popular and Indigenous Organizations of Honduras (COPINH) is a Honduran organization founded in 1993, dedicated to the defense of the environment in Intibucá and the defense of the indigenous Lenca people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water protectors</span> Environmental activists from an Indigenous perspective

Water protectors are activists, organizers, and cultural workers focused on the defense of the world's water and water systems. The water protector name, analysis and style of activism arose from Indigenous communities in North America during the Dakota Access Pipeline protests at the Standing Rock Reservation, which began with an encampment on LaDonna Brave Bull Allard's land in April, 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extractivism</span> Process of extracting resources from the earth

Extractivism is the removal of natural resources particularly for export with minimal processing. This economic model is common throughout the Global South and the Arctic region, but also happens in some sacrifice zones in the Global North, as in the European Extractivism The concept was coined in Portuguese as "extractivismo" in 1996 to describe the for-profit exploitation of forest resources in Brazil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Patricia Gualinga</span> Ecuadorian human rights defender

Patricia Gualinga, is a women human rights defender and indigenous rights defender of the Pueblo Kichwa de Sarayaku, an indigenous community in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Nina Gualinga is an Ecuadorian environmental and indigenous rights activist. She is part of the Kichwa-speaking community and has spent most of her life advocating for better environmental protection of the Ecuadorian Amazon and the inhabitant wildlife as well as the people who are dependent on this environment.

Paulo Paulino Guajajara, also known as "Lobo", was a Brazilian Indigenous (Guajajara) environmental activist and land defender. He was killed by illegal loggers in an ambush inside the Araribóia in Maranhão.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Escobal mine protests</span> Escobal mine protests

The Escobal mine protests are a series of political protests opposing the Escobal mine, a large silver mine developed by Canadian mining company Tahoe Resources in San Rafael Las Flores, Guatemala. Since 2009 various community groups have advocated against the mine, citing risks of environmental damage and the land sovereignty rights of the indigenous Xinca people. These groups have employed nonviolent protest tactics such as blockading mine property and voting in municipal referendums, which found that over 95% of residents in surrounding communities opposed the Escobal mine.

Mujeres Amazónicas Defensoras de la Selva de las Bases frente al Extractivismo(English: Amazonian Women Defending the Forest from Extractivism), also known as Mujeres Amazónicas, is an Indigenous environmental rights group. The group is made up of more than 100 women from seven nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon and advocates for the protection of nature, territory, women's rights, health, education, and Indigenous culture in Ecuador.

Environmental defenders or environmental human rights defenders are individuals or collectives who protect the environment from harms resulting from resource extraction, hazardous waste disposal, infrastructure projects, land appropriation, or other dangers. In 2019, the UN Human Rights Council unanimously recognised their importance to environmental protection. The term environmental defender is broadly applied to a diverse range of environmental groups and leaders from different cultures that all employ different tactics and hold different agendas. Use of the term is contested, as it homogenizes such a wide range of groups and campaigns, many of whom do not self-identify with the term and may not have explicit aims to protect the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental conflict</span> Social conflict caused by environmental factors

Environmental conflicts or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are social conflicts caused by environmental degradation or by unequal distribution of environmental resources. The Environmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented. Parties involved in these conflicts include locally affected communities, states, companies and investors, and social or environmental movements; typically environmental defenders are protecting their homelands from resource extraction or hazardous waste disposal. Resource extraction and hazardous waste activities often create resource scarcities, pollute the environment, and degrade the living space for humans and nature, resulting in conflict. A particular case of environmental conflicts are forestry conflicts, or forest conflicts which "are broadly viewed as struggles of varying intensity between interest groups, over values and issues related to forest policy and the use of forest resources". In the last decades, a growing number of these have been identified globally.

Paul Sein Twa is a Karen environmentalist and indigenous activist from Myanmar who works to preserve the culture and environment of the Salween River basin. He co-founded the Karen Environmental and Social Action Network (KESAN) in 2001 to help Karen indigenous communities the preservation and protection of their land and heritage. He received the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2020 for his efforts.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Larsen, Billon, Menton, Aylwin, Balsiger, Boyd, Forst, Lambrick, Santos, Storey, Wilding (2021). "Understanding and responding to the environmental human rights defenders crisis: The case for conservation action". Conservation Letters. 14 (3). doi: 10.1111/conl.12777 . S2CID   229390470.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ Ducklow, Zoë (10 January 2019). "Judy Wilson's Message for Canadians: 'The Land Defenders Are Doing This for Everybody'". The Tyee. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
  3. ↑ "Protesters? Or land protectors?". The Indy. 28 October 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  4. ↑ "Land defence and defenders". iwgia.org.
  5. 1 2 Moore, Angel (18 September 2018). "Illegal protest or protecting the land? An Indigenous woman gets ready to face a Canadian court - APTN News". Aptn News. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  6. ↑ "Standing Rock activists: Don't call us protesters. We're water protectors". The World from PRX. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  7. ↑ "We Are Land Protectors, Not Protesters". YouTube .
  8. ↑ Moore, Angel (18 September 2018). "Illegal protest or protecting the land? An Indigenous woman gets ready to face a Canadian court". APTN News. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  9. 1 2 Olson, Jared (6 November 2021). "In Honduras Land Battles, Paramilitaries Infiltrate Local Groups — Then Kill Their Leaders". The Intercept. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  10. ↑ "Atlanta Community Press Collective". Atlanta Community Press Collective. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  11. ↑ "The New Fight Over an Old Forest in Atlanta". The New Yorker. 3 August 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  12. ↑ "Meet Josephine Mandamin (Anishinaabekwe), The "Water Walker"". Indigenous Rising. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  13. ↑ Maial Panhpunu Paiakan Kaiapó (24 October 2020). "Opinion: The devastation of my Amazon homeland has accelerated during the pandemic". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  14. ↑ "Mi'kmaq water protectors blocking fossil fuel infrastructure in Nova Scotia | rabble.ca". rabble.ca. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  15. ↑ McKenzie-Sutter, Holly (27 November 2020). "Indigenous land occupants in Caledonia appeal injunction". Toronto Sun. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  16. ↑ Kestler-D'Amours, Jillian. "'RCMP off Wet'suwet'en land': Solidarity grows for land defenders". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  17. 1 2 "Beatings, Imprisonment, Murder: The World's Environmental Defenders Are Being Terrorized". Global Citizen. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  18. ↑ Yazzie, Melanie K. (2018). "Decolonizing Development in Diné Bikeyah: Resource Extraction, Anti-Capitalism, and Relational Futures". Environment and Society. 9: 25–39. doi:10.3167/ares.2018.090103. ISSN   2150-6779. JSTOR   26879576. S2CID   158704091.
  19. ↑ "Standing Rock activists: Don't call us protesters. We're water protectors". Public Radio International. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  20. ↑ "Barricades up in Caledonia after attempted arrest of land defender". The Hamilton Spectator. 5 October 2020. ISSN   1189-9417 . Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  21. ↑ "Caledonia land occupation criminal cases move through courts". The Hamilton Spectator. 25 November 2020. ISSN   1189-9417 . Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  22. ↑ Simpson, Michael; Le Billon, Philippe (1 February 2021). "Reconciling violence: Policing the politics of recognition". Geoforum. 119: 111–121. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.12.023. ISSN   0016-7185. S2CID   234082840.
  23. ↑ Spiegel, Samuel J. (1 January 2021). "Climate injustice, criminalisation of land protection and anti-colonial solidarity: Courtroom ethnography in an age of fossil fuel violence". Political Geography. 84: 102298. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102298. ISSN   0962-6298. PMC   7544477 . PMID   33052177.
  24. ↑ Lange, Shauna M. (2020), "Saving Species, Healthy Humanity: The Key Role of Women in Ecological Integrity", Ecological Integrity in Science and Law, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 85–96, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46259-8_8, ISBN   978-3-030-46258-1, S2CID   226561547
  25. ↑ "5 deadly countries for environmental defenders". Deutsche Welle. 28 July 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  26. ↑ "Indigenous Peoples". World Bank. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  27. ↑ "Murders of environment and land defenders hit record high". the Guardian. 12 September 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  28. ↑ Menton, Mary; Le Billon, Philippe (24 June 2021). Environmental Defenders: Deadly Struggles for Life and Territory. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-000-40221-6.
  29. 1 2 Middeldorp, Nick; Le Billon, Philippe (4 March 2019). "Deadly Environmental Governance: Authoritarianism, Eco-populism, and the Repression of Environmental and Land Defenders". Annals of the American Association of Geographers. 109 (2): 324–337. doi:10.1080/24694452.2018.1530586. ISSN   2469-4452. S2CID   159354399.
  30. ↑ "Land Defenders Keep Getting Killed in Colombia". www.vice.com. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  31. ↑ Mar, Celina Shih (8 October 2021). "Record Number Of Environmental Activists Killed In The Past Year". The Organization for World Peace. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  32. ↑ May, Roy H. (2018), Rozzi, Ricardo; May, Roy H.; Chapin III, F. Stuart; Massardo, Francisca (eds.), "Land Grabbing and Violence Against Environmentalists", From Biocultural Homogenization to Biocultural Conservation, Ecology and Ethics, Cham: Springer International Publishing, vol. 3, pp. 109–123, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99513-7_7, ISBN   978-3-319-99512-0 , retrieved 11 February 2021
  33. ↑ Parrish, Jaskiran Dhillon Will (20 December 2019). "Exclusive: Canada police prepared to shoot Indigenous activists, documents show". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  34. ↑ Dunlap, Alexander (15 April 2020). "The Politics of Ecocide, Genocide and Megaprojects: Interrogating Natural Resource Extraction, Identity and the Normalization of Erasure". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (2): 212–235. doi: 10.1080/14623528.2020.1754051 . ISSN   1462-3528.
  35. 1 2 "164 land defenders murdered in 2018, Global Witness reports". Climate Home News. 30 July 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  36. ↑ Le Billon, Philippe; Lujala, Päivi (11 November 2020). "Environmental and land defenders: Global patterns and determinants of repression". Global Environmental Change. 65: 102163. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102163. ISSN   0959-3780. S2CID   225119151.
  37. 1 2 Brown, Alleen (30 July 2019). "More Than 160 Environmental Defenders Were Killed in 2018, and Many Others Labeled Terrorists and Criminals". The Intercept. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  38. 1 2 "More Than 200 Environmental Activists and Land Defenders Murdered in 2019". Yale E360. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  39. 1 2 3 4 "Record 212 land and environment activists killed last year". the Guardian. 29 July 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  40. ↑ "Earth Land and Water Defenders". Amnesty International Canada. 2 April 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  41. ↑ Tabary, Zoe (1 November 2020). "One year on, family of murdered Amazon land defender say nothing has changed". Reuters. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  42. ↑ "Murder in the rainforest: 1700+ defenders killed, but their legacy lives on". Environmental Defense Fund. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  43. ↑ "Extinction Rebellion honours land defenders killed for protecting the environment". rabble.ca. 10 October 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  44. ↑ McIntosh, E. (17 September 2020). "Climate strikers are trying to trademark Erin O'Toole's 'Take Back Canada' slogan". National Observer. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  45. ↑ Cowie, Sam (2 November 2019). "Brazilian 'forest guardian' killed by illegal loggers in ambush". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  46. ↑ "Brazil Amazon forest defender shot dead by illegal loggers". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  47. ↑ "Julián Carrillo defended the forest with his life". www.amnesty.org. 28 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  48. ↑ "Mexico's environmental defenders need justice and protection". www.amnesty.org. 24 October 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  49. ↑ "Indigenous rights leader reported slain in northern Mexico". AP News. 25 October 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  50. ↑ "Datu Kaylo Bontolan". HRD Memorial: Celebrating Those Who Were Killed Defending Human Rights. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  51. ↑ "Indigenous Land Defender Assassinated in Chiapas". Democracy Now!. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  52. ↑ "Mexico rights organizer killed, 3rd activist to die in month". AP News. 6 July 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  53. ↑ "Chilean Activist Javiera Rojas, Who Helped Shut Down Dam Projects, Has Been Killed". Democracy Now!. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.