Low culture

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Low-culture humor: Kissing the Pope's Feet German peasants bare their buttocks and fart in response to a papal bull of Pope Paul III: "The Pope speaks: Our sentences are to be feared, even if unjust. Response: Be damned! Behold, o furious race, our bared buttocks." The irreligious scene is low-culture humor from the Papstsbotbilder (Depictions of Papal Messages, 1545) series of wood cuts, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, which was commissioned by Martin Luther. The Papal Belvedere.jpg
Low-culture humor:
Kissing the Pope's Feet
German peasants bare their buttocks and fart in response to a papal bull of Pope Paul III: "The Pope speaks: Our sentences are to be feared, even if unjust. Response: Be damned! Behold, o furious race, our bared buttocks."
The irreligious scene is low-culture humor from the Papstsbotbilder (Depictions of Papal Messages, 1545) series of wood cuts, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, which was commissioned by Martin Luther.

In society, the term low culture identifies the forms of popular culture that have mass appeal, often broadly appealing to the middle or lower cultures of any given society. [5] This is in contrast to the forms of high culture that appeal to a smaller, often upper-class proportion of the populace. Culture theory proposes that both high culture and low culture are subcultures within a society, because the culture industry mass-produces each type of popular culture for every socioeconomic class. [6] Despite being viewed as characteristic of less-educated social classes, low culture is still often enjoyed by upper classes as well. This makes the content that falls under this categorization the most broadly consumed kind of media in a culture overall. [7] Various forms of low culture can be found across a variety of cultures, with the physical objects composing these mediums often being constructed from less expensive, perishable materials. The phrase low culture has come to be viewed by some as a derogatory idea in and of itself, existing to put down elements of pop or tribal culture that others may deem to be "inferior." [8]

Contents

Standards and definitions

In Popular Culture and High Culture: An Analysis and Evaluation of Taste (1958), Herbert J. Gans said:

Aesthetic standards of low culture stress substance, form being totally subservient, and there is no explicit concern with abstract ideas or even with fictional forms of contemporary social problems and issues. . . . Low culture emphasizes morality, but limits itself to familial and individual problems and [specific] values, which apply to such problems. Low culture is content to depict traditional working class values winning out over the temptation to give in to conflicting impulses and behavior patterns. [9]

In other words, low culture is often associated with media that presents smaller-scale or individual experiences that are easier for the general public to identify with.

History

Physical artifacts from low culture are normally cheaply and often crudely made, as well as often small, in contrast to the comparatively grand public art or luxury objects of high culture. While this is a necessity for this low culture media to be broadly disseminated, it has also contributed to its reputation as low-brow or of lesser merit. The cheapness of the materials, many of which are perishable, generally means that their survival and preservation in modern times is rare. There are exceptions, especially in pottery and graffiti on stone. An ostracon is a small piece of pottery (or sometimes stone) which has been written on, for any of a number of purposes, among which curse tablets or more positive magical spells such as love magic are common. Wood must have been a common material, but survives for long periods only in certain climatic conditions, such as Egypt and other very arid areas, and permanently wet and slightly acidic peat bogs. [10]

Once printing (and paper) became relatively cheap, popular prints became increasingly widespread by the late Renaissance. This technology also allowed for the production of cheap texts in street literature such as broadsides and broadside ballads, typically new topical words to a familiar tune. These examples became extremely common, but were treated as ephemera, so survival of this material is relatively uncommon.

Folk music is another notable historical manifestation of low culture. Much traditional folk music was only written down, and later mechanically recorded, in the 19th century, as growing nationalist sentiments in many countries generated interest from middle class enthusiasts. In comparison to other forms of music, such as music written for orchestras or by well-known classical composers, folk music was considered a product of low culture [11] given its association with the more popular, cruder tastes of those who created it. This social separation between folk and classical music was also influenced by the traditions and expectations followed by the latter, which was often written for use in religious settings that demanded certain consistencies in the musical structure. [11] Instead, folk music (along with its successor, contemporary folk music) is thought of as a reflection of common themes present in its community of origin. [12] These combined traits help define folk music as an early, widespread form of low culture, for which the lower/working classes were both the largest producers and consumers.

Modern day

The phrase trash culture began to enter the public lexicon in the 1980s as a classification for these kinds of recent low-cultural expressions. This kind of content is often considered to be either vulgar, in poor taste, or lacking in-depth artistic merit. With the explosion of tabloid journalism and sensationalistic reality television throughout the late 20th century, many modern artists such as Brett Easton Ellis would use these works as inspirations to bridge the gap between the confines of high and low culture. [13] The result of this on his work in particular has been media that could belong to either categorization based on the grotesque nature of his works content mixed with the depth more characteristic of other high-brow works.

Culture as social class

Each social class possesses its own versions of high and low culture, the definition and content of which are determined by the socioeconomic and educational particulars of the people who compose said social class. This falls in line with the sociological theory known as habitus, which states that the way that people perceive and respond to the social world they inhabit is through their personal habits, skills, and disposition of character. Therefore, what exactly constitutes high culture and low culture has specific meanings and usages that are collectively determined by the members of any respective social class. [14] However, people of higher social classes often view the cultural objects they consume as having a higher societal standing than that taken in by lower classes. This makes the distinction between high and low culture one drawn along social standings, a trend that has resulted in the art and content that makes up low culture being regularly discredited throughout history. [7]

Variation by country

The demographics who make up lower social classes have often been given specific phrases to refer to their classification as being of a lower social standing. These varying groups, who are usually made up of younger and poorer individuals, are often viewed as being a part of regionally specific delinquent subcultures. The following variations of these types of groups are stereotypical of the audiences who consume low culture works.

Common throughout the 1400s to 1700s in Europe, popular prints highlight some of the key identifying features of low culture media. Shortly after innovations in printing technology such as moveable type, popular prints became a useful tool for spreading political, religious, and social ideas to the working class—emphasis was placed on adding artwork or visually appealing designs in order to maximize readership in societies which, at the time, were not fully literate. [22] These prints contributed to pioneering satirical content, varying portrayals of common subcultures at the time, and other subject matter that is still found in modern-day low culture media. [22]

Popular prints are also observed in Chinese society from the late 1800s to mid-1900s, in which they were intended to be readily accessible to the majority of consumers (i.e., the working or middle classes). [23] Similarly to those found in Europe, the Chinese prints would emphasize design elements such as colorful designs and relatively inexpensive production, which led to their frequent consumption for both spreading various sociopolitical ideas or decorative purposes. [23] This usage of brief, eye-catching marketing strategy allowed the prints, much like their European counterparts, to appeal to a wider audience that would be receptive to both the entertainment and political content they contained. [23]

Although the reach of popular prints was both far spanning and effective, its classification as a lower art made it less desirable to higher classes, especially during the art form's earlier years when the drawings themselves were more crude and simply produced due to necessity. [24] As printing techniques advanced, and the quality of the art itself improved during the 17th and 18th centuries, higher social classes began to take more interest in it. This has allowed for more of this genre's later works to survive into the modern age, with earlier, 15th century era works being lost to time due to the perishable nature of printing materials. [25]

Toilet humor

Also referred to as potty or scatological humor, toilet humor is a brand of off-color humor that deals with defecation, urination, and other bodily functions that would often be deemed as societally taboo. Although most forms of off-color comedy could be viewed as a kind of low culture, toilet humor in particular has received this connotation due to the comedy style's frequent interest amongst toddlers and young children, for whom cultural taboos related to the acknowledgement of waste excretion still have a degree of novelty. For this reason, toilet humor has come to be regularly viewed as juvenile, although it has continued to find success in a number of modern settings such as in the Captain Underpants [26] and South Park [27] media franchises. This relation between low culture and what is enjoyed by children demonstrates a regular pattern in who is seen to find low culture appealing.

Lowbrow art movement

Arising in the Los Angeles, California, area during the 1960s, Lowbrow was an underground visual art movement that took inspiration from other popular forms of low culture art of the time such as underground comix, punk music, tiki culture, and graffiti. [28] The phrase for this style was coined by artist Robert Williams, who decided to name a 1979 book containing his paintings as The Lowbrow Art of Robt. Williams, in opposition to the idea of high-brow art following the initial rejection of recognition of his work from several pre-established art institutions. The movement has also been referred to as "pop surrealism" [29] in some circles (and likewise Williams himself has referred to it as "cartoon-tainted abstract surrealism" [30] ), where the feeling appears to be that the label "lowbrow" may be inappropriate, given the artistic merit found in the movement's artists. Despite initial pushback from contemporary critics, the movement has begun to be taken more seriously as the years have gone on, with the first formal gallery exhibition displaying the works of the movement being orchestrated in 1992 by Greg Escalante at the Julie Rico Gallery in Santa Monica. [28]

Internet memes

Many well-known examples of modern low culture are represented by online memes that can quickly spread through various social media or messaging platforms. In the context of modern internet culture, memes are cultural ideas (often in the form of images, videos, or vernacular phrases) that have gradually developed certain contextual meanings for their audiences. [31] Memes are often shared by internet users in an informal setting, often with the intent of humor, satire, or social commentary; these behaviors frequently lead to certain images reaching a status of near-universal recognition and fame across the internet. The rapid popularization of Pepe the Frog as a meme in the mid-2010s highlights the variety of symbolic purposes that any one meme can be applied to represent. [32] The image, which can be traced back to a comic book character created by Matt Furie in 2005, was heavily reused and shared across various online forums in later years. [7] Eventually, Pepe's presence spread to a number of far-right communities on the website 4chan, in which it later became associated with hate speech. [7] This sudden shift in usage prompted more serious analysis in other circles, including sociology and other academic communities, as the meme's spread and highly varied usage by different online groups represented a unique kind of media that could influence future political discourse, particularly among middle- or lower-class internet users. [33]

Reality television

Since its inception in the 1990s, the reality television genre has been a commonly cited example of low culture in contemporary times. Reality television has been labelled as low culture due to its usage of the word "reality" when most drama and conflicts are manufactured, widespread appeal, glorification of wealth and fame, and promotion of materialism. [34] English actor and filmmaker, Gary Oldman described reality television as "the museum of social decay." The genre's overreliance on schadenfreude, the pleasure of seeing another's humiliation or misfortune is also a contributor to why reality television is often cited as low culture. American digital magazine, Entertainment Weekly wrote "Do we watch reality television for precious insight into the human condition? Please. We watch for those awkward scenes that make us feel a smidge better about our own little unfilmed lives" regarding the genre succeeding from the public humiliation of others. [35]

Formulaic blockbusters

These films are designed to have mass appeal in order to maximise profits, usually relying on formulaic storytelling and accessibility that guarantee financial success at the expense of critical reception or artistic and intellectual value. [34] Such examples include the superhero genre, films by Michael Bay, and the Jurassic Park, Star Wars, and Fast & The Furious media franchises. [36] [37] American filmmaker, Martin Scorsese has compared these films, particularly those from the Marvel Cinematic Universe to theme park rides, stating that "they seem to me to be closer to theme parks than they are to movies as I’ve known and loved them throughout my life." [38]

Mass media

Audience

All cultural products (especially high culture) have a certain demographic to which they appeal most. In regard to low culture, it often appeals to very simple and basic human emotional needs, while also offering a perceived return to innocence. [39] This escape from real world problems comes from the experience of being able to live vicariously through the lives of others by viewing them through various forms of media. [40] While the audiences that consume low culture tend to originate from lower socioeconomic classes, those considered 'elite' can also interact with this media. An example of this interaction between classes can be found in outsider art, which is often created by individuals without a background in the fine arts—interestingly, it has been heavily associated with consumption by higher classes throughout the 20th century in a notable example of higher classes consuming media that was neither generated by nor specifically intended to catch their attention. [41]

Stereotypes

Low culture can often be formulaic, employing trope conventions, stock characters, and character archetypes in a manner that can be perceived as more simplistic, crude, emotive, unbalanced, or blunt compared to the ways in which a piece of high culture would implement them. This leads to the perception of high culture as being more subtle, balanced, or refined and open for interpretation in comparison with its lower counterpart. Modern media that would often be constituted as low culture often continues to implement stereotypes, often to comment or critique them in a satirical manner. [42]

Cross-cultural artifacts

The use and display of different cultural artifacts, especially in the West, has been studied as an example of low culture consumed by upper classes. Certain examples of these artifacts, such as artwork from African cultures, may be found in higher-income establishments with no ties to these cultures, [41] a phenomenon that has been described as "cultural omnivorousness [sic]," [41] with the aim of creating a more distinguished air in the interior design of the owners' business or living spaces. These cases exemplify another means by which media deemed low culture can still be consumed by socioeconomic classes besides those with which it is chiefly associated, or notably for which it has primarily been created.

See also

Related Research Articles

Camp is an aesthetic and sensibility that regards something as appealing or amusing because of its heightened level of artifice, affectation and exaggeration, especially when there is also a playful or ironic element. Camp is historically associated with LGBTQ culture and especially gay men. Camp aesthetics disrupt modernist understandings of high art by inverting traditional aesthetic judgements of beauty, value, and taste, and inviting a different kind of aesthetic engagement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subculture</span> Smaller culture within a larger culture

A subculture is a group of people within a cultural society that differentiates itself from the values of the conservative, standard or dominant culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, political, and sexual matters. Subcultures are part of society while keeping their specific characteristics intact. Examples of subcultures include BDSM, hippies, hipsters, goths, steampunks, bikers, punks, skinheads, gopnik, hip-hoppers, metalheads, cosplayers, otaku, otherkin, furries, hackers and more. The concept of subcultures was developed in sociology and cultural studies. Subcultures differ from countercultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Art music</span> Serious music, as opposed to popular or folk music

Art music is music considered to be of high phonoaesthetic value. It typically implies advanced structural and theoretical considerations or a written musical tradition. In this context, the terms "serious" or "cultivated" are frequently used to present a contrast with ordinary, everyday music. Many cultures have art music traditions; in the Western world, the term typically refers to Western classical music.

The term culture industry was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods—films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.—that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of popular culture, made available by the mass communications media, renders people docile and content, no matter how difficult their economic circumstances. The inherent danger of the culture industry is the cultivation of false psychological needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products of capitalism; thus Adorno and Horkheimer perceived mass-produced culture as especially dangerous compared to the more technically and intellectually difficult high arts. In contrast, true psychological needs are freedom, creativity, and genuine happiness, which refer to an earlier demarcation of human needs, established by Herbert Marcuse.

Alternative media are media sources that differ from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Sometimes the term independent media is used as a synonym, indicating independence from large media corporations, but generally independent media is used to describe a different meaning around freedom of the press and independence from government control. Alternative media does not refer to a specific format and may be inclusive of print, audio, film/video, online/digital and street art, among others. Some examples include the counter-culture zines of the 1960s, ethnic and indigenous media such as the First People's television network in Canada, and more recently online open publishing journalism sites such as Indymedia.

Working-class culture or proletarian culture is a range of cultures created by or popular among working-class people. The cultures can be contrasted with high culture and folk culture, and are often equated with popular culture and low culture. Working-class culture developed during the Industrial Revolution. Because most of the newly created working class were former peasants, the cultures took on much of the localised folk culture. This was soon altered by the changed conditions of social relationships and the increased mobility of the workforce and later by the marketing of mass-produced cultural artefacts such as prints and ornaments and commercial entertainment such as music hall and cinema.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High culture</span> Form of culture valued by opinion-elites

In a society, high culture encompasses cultural objects of aesthetic value which a society collectively esteems as being exemplary works of art, as well as the intellectual works of literature and music, history and philosophy which a society considers representative of their culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Highbrow</span> Word synonymous with intellectual

Used colloquially as a noun or adjective, "highbrow" is synonymous with intellectual; as an adjective, it also means elite, and generally carries a connotation of high culture. The term, first recorded in 1875, draws its metonymy from the pseudoscience of phrenology, which teaches that people with large foreheads are more intelligent. The term is deeply connected to hierarchical racial theories from the 19th century. The German physician, physiologist, and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) argued "for human diversity alonglines of racial differences as evidenced by skulls shapes and measurements. [...] One metric of Blumenbachs classification was the line of the forehead, said to be higher among 'Caucasians' and lower among 'Mongolians' and 'Ethiopians' and this is the origin of the still common usage of 'highbrow' and 'lowbrow' ".

The term middlebrow describes middlebrow art, which is easily accessible art, usually popular literature, and middlebrow people who use the arts to acquire the social capital of "culture and class" and thus a good reputation. First used in the British satire magazine Punch in 1925, the term middlebrow is the intellectual, intermediary brow between the highbrow and the lowbrow forms of culture; the terms highbrow and lowbrow are borrowed from the pseudoscience of phrenology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet meme</span> Cultural item spread via the Internet

An Internet meme, or meme, is a cultural item that spreads across the Internet, primarily through social media platforms. Internet memes manifest in a variety of formats, including images, videos, GIFs, and other viral content. Key characteristics of memes include their tendency to be parodied, their use of intertextuality, their viral dissemination, and their continual evolution. The term "meme" was originally introduced by Richard Dawkins in 1972 to describe the concept of cultural transmission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Remix culture</span> Society that allows and encourages derivative works

Remix culture, also known as read-write culture, is a term describing a culture that allows and encourages the creation of derivative works by combining or editing existing materials. Remix cultures are permissive of efforts to improve upon, change, integrate, or otherwise remix the work of other creators. While combining elements has always been a common practice of artists of all domains throughout human history, the growth of exclusive copyright restrictions in the last several decades limits this practice more and more by the legal chilling effect. In reaction, Harvard law professor Lawrence Lessig, who considers remixing a desirable concept for human creativity, has worked since the early 2000s on a transfer of the remixing concept into the digital age. Lessig founded the Creative Commons in 2001, which released a variety of licenses as tools to promote remix culture, as remixing is legally hindered by the default exclusive copyright regime applied on intellectual property. The remix culture for cultural works is related to and inspired by the earlier Free and open-source software for software movement, which encourages the reuse and remixing of software works.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trash culture</span> Artistic or entertainment expressions considered of low cultural profile

Trash culture refers to a broad category of artistic or entertainment expressions perceived as having a low cultural profile but possessing mass appeal. It encompasses media such as books, films, television shows, and music often criticized for their perceived lack of cultural value, reliance on sensationalism, and focus on commercial success. Emerging from the margins of mainstream culture, trash culture thrives on provocation and transgression, often celebrating the outrageous, the kitschy, and the taboo.

Popular culture is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a society at a given point in time. Popular culture also encompasses the activities and feelings produced as a result of interaction with these dominant objects. The primary driving forces behind popular culture, especially when speaking of Western popular cultures, are the mass media, mass appeal, marketing and capitalism; and it is produced by what philosopher Theodor Adorno refers to as the "culture industry".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture</span> Social behavior and norms of a society

Culture is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location.

Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training. As a kind of popular art, it stands in contrast to art music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of written music, although since the beginning of the recording industry, it is also disseminated through recordings. Traditional music forms such as early blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller, local audiences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture jamming</span> Form of protest to subvert media culture

Culture jamming is a form of protest used by many anti-consumerist social movements to disrupt or subvert media culture and its mainstream cultural institutions, including corporate advertising. It attempts to "expose the methods of domination" of mass society.

In cultural studies, media culture refers to the current Western capitalist society that emerged and developed during the 20th century under the influence of mass media. The term highlights the extensive impact and intellectual influence of the media, primarily television, but also the press, radio, and cinema, on public opinion, tastes, and values.

Viral phenomena or viral sensations are objects or patterns that are able to replicate themselves or convert other objects into copies of themselves when these objects are exposed to them. Analogous to the way in which viruses propagate, the term viral pertains to a video, image, or written content spreading to numerous online users within a short time period. This concept has become a common way to describe how thoughts, information, and trends move into and through a human population.

The history of humor on the Internet begins together with the Internet itself. Initially, the internet and its precursors, LANs and WANs, were used merely as another medium to disseminate jokes and other kinds of humor, in addition to the traditional ones. In lockstep with the progress of electronic communication technologies, jokers took advantage of the ARPANET, e-mail, Usenet newsgroups, bulletin board systems, etc., and finally the Whole World Wide Web. Gradually, new forms of humor evolved, based on the new possibilities delivered by electronic means of communication. Popular forms of internet humour are found in the form of 'internet memes', GIFs, and short form videos. Reaction videos, where amusement is expressed through a person's response to something, are another prevalent form of humor unique to the internet.

Limor Shifman is a professor of communication at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and is the Vice Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences. Her work has been in researching and developing an area of study surrounding Internet memes, a subarea of digital culture and digital media research. Since the late 2000s she has been an active contributor to the research area of memetics, a more broad area of research interested in cultural evolution of ideas. She is married to neurogeneticist Sagiv Shifman.

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  30. ↑ Beinart, William; Hughes, Lotte (2007-10-11), "Introduction", Environment and Empire, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oso/9780199260317.003.0006, ISBN   978-0-19-926031-7 , retrieved 2023-11-20
  31. ↑ Bown, Alfie; Bristow, Daniel, eds. (2019). Post memes: seizing the memes of production. Goleta, Calif.: Punctom Books. ISBN   978-1-950192-43-4.
  32. ↑ Scrivens, Ryan; Gaudette, Tiana; Conway, Maura; Holt, Thomas J. (2022), Right-Wing Extremists' Use of the Internet: Emerging Trends in the Empirical Literature, Palgrave Hate Studies, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 355–380, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-99804-2_14, ISBN   978-3-030-99803-5 , retrieved 2023-11-20
  33. ↑ Ames, Melissa; McDuffie, Kristi (2023-04-01), "Introduction: Redefining Hashtag Activism", Hashtag Activism Interrogated and Embodied: Case Studies on Social Justice Movements, Utah State University Press, pp. 3–17, doi: 10.7330/9781646423187.c000b , ISBN   978-1-64642-317-0
  34. 1 2 Drew (PhD), Chris (2023-07-14). "23 Examples of Low Culture (2025)". helpfulprofessor.com. Retrieved 2025-01-21.
  35. ↑ "| EW.com". web.archive.org. 2018-10-01. Retrieved 2025-01-21.
  36. ↑ Bennett, Bruce (2018-06-27). "The Cinema of Michael Bay: An Aesthetic of Excess – Senses of Cinema" . Retrieved 2025-01-20.
  37. ↑ Stewart, David V. (2023-05-29). "The Corporate Period in the Arts, part 4 – Cultural Ground Zero". DVS Press. Retrieved 2025-01-20.
  38. ↑ Abad-Santos, Alex (2019-11-08). "Martin Scorsese's fight against Marvel isn't really about Marvel movies". Vox. Retrieved 2025-01-21.
  39. ↑ Tomasino, Anna, ed. (2007). Discovering popular culture. A Longman topics reader (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN   978-0-321-35596-6.
  40. ↑ Mazur, Eric Michael; McCarthy, Kate, eds. (2011). God in the details: American religion in popular culture (Second ed.). London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN   978-0-415-48537-1.
  41. 1 2 3 Hahl, Oliver; Zuckerman, Ezra W.; Kim, Minjae (2017-06-02). "Why Elites Love Authentic Lowbrow Culture: Overcoming High-Status Denigration with Outsider Art". American Sociological Review. 82 (4): 828–856. doi:10.1177/0003122417710642. ISSN   0003-1224. S2CID   149439513.
  42. ↑ Cowen, Tyler; Tabarrok, Alexander (October 2000). "An Economic Theory of Avant-Garde and Popular Art, or High and Low Culture". Southern Economic Journal. 67 (2): 232. doi:10.2307/1061469. JSTOR   1061469.
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