Unless otherwise specified, Chinese text in this article is written in the format Simplified Chinese / Traditional Chinese, Pinyin. If the Simplified and Traditional Chinese characters are identical, they are written only once.
Identifying this scheme using the generic term "zodiac" reflects several superficial similarities to the Western zodiac:both have time cycles divided into twelve parts,each label at least the majority of those parts with names of animals,and each is widely associated with a culture of ascribing a person's personality or events in their life to the supposed influence of the person's particular relationship to the cycle. The 12 Chinese zodiac animals in a cycle are not only used to represent years in China,but also believed to influence people's personalities,career,compatibility,marriage,and fortune.[7]
According to legend, the Jade Emperor held a contest to decide which animals would be lucky enough to be included in the calendar. The winner of the race – the rat – received the first year of the 12-year cycle, and so on.[8]
However, according to historical records and research,[by whom?] the Chinese zodiac appeared after the establishment of the "Ganji Chronicle Law",[when?] and the twelve animals corresponded to the twelve branches one by one. People born in any given year have animals belonging to that branch of the earth, and accordingly, twelve animals are used for chronology and the genus of each person.
In the Eastern Han dynasty, Xu Shen said that the character si (巳) was the image of a snake, and the same was true for hai (亥) and shi (豕; 'pig'). Since the twelve Earthly Branches of the zodiac were easily confused, folks replaced them with animals and borrowed the ordinal symbols to match them with the Earthly Branches to form a chronological symbol system.[9]
"Totem and celestial combination theory", puts forth the idea that the zodiac is ancient animal totem worship combined with astronomical images in astronomy. Among them, the explanation of the totem and celestial combinations is more scientific.[citation needed]
Signs
A stone carving of the Chinese zodiac.Ceramic figurines of calendar animals, from left to right: Tiger-headed, Dragon-headed, Snake-headed, Monkey-headed and Rooster-headed. Tang dynasty era. Musée Cernuschi
The zodiactraditionally begins with the sign of the Rat.[citation needed] The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order, each with its associated characteristics (Heavenly Stems, Earthly Branch, yin/yang force, Trine, and nature element).[10] The belief that everyone and every animal has a role to play in society translates well with Confucian beliefs in a hierarchical society. Just as Confucian beliefs persist in Asia today alongside more modern social views, so does the use of the zodiac.[11]
In Chinese astrology the animal signs assigned by year represent how others perceive one or how one presents oneself.[citation needed] It is a common misconception that the animals assigned by year are the only signs, and many Western descriptions of Chinese astrology draw solely on this system. There are also animal signs assigned by month (called "inner animals"), by day (called "true animals"), and hours (called "secret animals"). The Earth is all twelve signs, with five seasons.[citation needed]
Michel Ferlus (2013) notes that the Old Chinese names of the earthly branches are of Austroasiatic origin.[12][unreliable source?] Some of Ferlus's comparisons are given below, with Old Chinese reconstructions cited from Baxter & Sagart (2014).[13]
The terms for the earthly branches are attested from Shang dynasty inscriptions and were likely also used before Shang times. Ferlus (2013) suggests that the terms may have been ancient pre-Shang borrowings from Austroasiatic languages that were spoken in the Yangtze River region.[12]
Within the Four Pillars, the year is the pillar representing information about the person's family background and society or relationship with their grandparents.[citation needed] The person's age can also be easily deduced from their sign, the current sign of the year, and the person's generational disposition (teens, mid-20s, and so on). For example, a person born a Tiger is 12, 24, 36, (etc.) years old in the year of the Tiger (2022); in the year of the Rabbit (2023), that person is one year older.
The first Trine consists of the Rat, Dragon, and Monkey. These three signs are considered intense and powerful individuals capable of great good, who make great leaders but are rather unpredictable. The three are intelligent, generous, charismatic, charming, authoritative, confident, eloquent, and artistic, but can also be manipulative, jealous, selfish, aggressive, vindictive, and deceitful.
Second
The second Trine consists of the Ox, Snake, and Rooster. These three signs are said to possess endurance and application, with slow accumulation of energy, meticulous at planning but tending to hold fixed opinions. The three are said to be intelligent, hard-working, modest, industrious, loyal, philosophical, patient, goodhearted, and morally upright, but can also be self-righteous, egotistical, vain, judgmental, narrow-minded, and petty.
Third
The third Trine consists of the Tiger, Horse, and Dog. These three signs are said to seek true love, to pursue humanitarian causes, to be idealistic and independent but tending to be impulsive. The three are said to be productive, enthusiastic, independent, engaging, dynamic, honorable, loyal, and protective, but can also be rash, rebellious, quarrelsome, anxious, disagreeable, and stubborn.
Fourth
The fourth Trine consists of the Rabbit, Goat, and Pig. These three signs are said to have a calm nature and somewhat reasonable approach; they seek aesthetic beauty and are artistic, well-mannered and compassionate, yet detached and resigned to their condition. The three are said to be caring, self-sacrificing, obliging, sensible, creative, empathetic, tactful, and prudent, but can also be naive, pedantic, insecure, selfish, indecisive, and pessimistic.
Compatibility
Chinese Zodiac Compatibility-Conflict-Harm Grid in accordance to one's nature, characteristics, and elements
As the Chinese zodiac is derived according to the ancient Five Elements Theory, every Chinese sign is associated with five elements with relations, among those elements, of interpolation, interaction, over-action, and counter-action—believed to be the common law of motions and changes of creatures in the universe. Different people born under each animal sign supposedly have different personalities, and practitioners of Chinese astrology consult such traditional details and compatibilities to offer putative guidance in life or for love and marriage.[16] One of the most common ways to explore the compatibility of the zodiac is to use a compatibility chart that shows how each zodiac sign interacts with another zodiac sign.For example, constellations that are considered compatible with each other may have similar values and interests, while constellations that are considered incompatible may have conflicting personalities and ways of communicating.[17]
There are many stories and fables to explain the beginning of the zodiac. Since the Han dynasty, the twelve Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. However, for the sake of entertainment and convenience,[citation needed] they have been replaced by the twelve animals, and a mnemonic refers to the behavior of the animals:
Earthly Branches may refer to a double-hour period.[19] In the latter case it is the center of the period; for instance, 马 (Horse) means noon as well as a period from 11:00 to 13:00.
Rats are most active in seeking food. Rats also have a different number of digits on front and hind legs, thus earning Rat the symbol of "turn over" or "new start"
This article is missing information about the origin and history of the folktale. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page.(June 2019)
This image depicts a scene from "The Great Race" folk story, in which the Ox carries the Rat across the river.
An ancient folktale[20] called "The Great Race" tells of the Jade Emperor's decree that the years on the calendar would be named for each animal in the order they reached him. To get there, the animals would have to cross a river.
The Cat and the Rat were not good at swimming, but they were both quite intelligent. They decided that the best and fastest way to cross the river was to hop on the back of the Ox. The Ox, being kindhearted and naive, agreed to carry them both across. As the Ox was about to reach the other side of the river, the Rat pushed the Cat into the water, and then jumped off the Ox and rushed to the Jade Emperor. It was named as the first animal of the zodiac calendar. The Ox had to settle for second place.
The third animal to come was the Tiger. Even though it was strong and powerful, it admitted to the Jade Emperor that the currents were pushing it downstream.
Suddenly, a thump sound came from the distance, signaling the arrival of the Rabbit. It explained how it crossed the river: by jumping from one stone to another in a nimble fashion. Halfway through, it thought it might lose the race, but it was lucky enough to grab hold of a floating log that later washed it to shore. For that, it became the fourth animal in the zodiac cycle.
In fifth place was the flying Dragon. The Jade Emperor wondered why a swift, airborne creature such as the Dragon did not come in first place. The Dragon explained that it had to stop by a village and bring rain for all the people, and therefore it was held back. Then, on its way to the finish, it saw the helpless Rabbit clinging onto a log, so it did a good deed and gave a puff of breath in the poor creature's direction so that it could land on the shore. The Jade Emperor was astonished by the Dragon's good nature, and it was named as the fifth animal of the zodiac.
As soon as the Dragon arrived, there came a galloping sound, and the Horse appeared. Hidden on the Horse's hoof was the Snake, whose sudden appearance gave the Horse a fright, thus making it fall back and giving the Snake the sixth spot while the Horse placed seventh.
After a while, the Goat, Monkey, and Rooster came to the river blocking the heavenly gate. The Rooster found a raft, and the Monkey and the Goat tugged and pulled, trying to get all the weeds out of the way. With combined efforts, they managed to arrive to the other side. The Jade Emperor was pleased with their teamwork and decided to name the Goat as the eighth animal, followed by the Monkey and then the Rooster.
The eleventh animal placed in the zodiac cycle was the Dog. Although it should have been the best swimmer and runner, it spent its time playing in the river water. Its explanation for being late was that it needed a good bath after a long journey, but it almost did not make it to the finish line.
Right when the Jade Emperor was going to end the race, an oink sound was heard: it was the Pig. The Pig felt hungry in the middle of the race, so it stopped, ate something, and then fell asleep. After it awoke, it finished the race in twelfth place, making it the last animal to arrive.
The Cat eventually drowned and failed to become part of the zodiac. It is said that this is the reason why cats hate water. It is also the reason for the rivalry between the Cat and Rat, as it was the Rat's callous act to push the Cat into the river.
Variations
Another version of the folktale tells that the Rat deceived the Ox into letting it jump on its back by promising the Ox that it could hear the Rat sing,[21] before jumping off at the finish line and finishing first. Another variant says that the Rat cheated the Cat out its place at the finish line, by hiding on the back of the Dog, who was too focused to notice that he had a stow-away. The Cat tried to attack the rat in retaliation, but hurt the Dog by accident. This is said to account for the antagonistic dynamic between cats and rats, beyond normal predator and prey behavior, and also why dogs and cats fight.
In Chinese mythology, a story tells that the cat was tricked by the Rat so it could not go to the banquet. This is why the Cat is ultimately not part of the Chinese zodiac.[citation needed]
In Buddhism, legend has it that Gautama Buddha summoned all of the animals of the Earth to come before him before his departure from this Earth, but only twelve animals actually came to bid him farewell. To reward the animals who came to him, he named a year after each of them. The years were given to them in the order they had arrived.
The twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac were developed in the early stages of Chinese civilization, so therefore it is difficult to investigate its real origins. Most historians agree that the Cat is not included, as cats had not yet been introduced to China from India with the arrival of Buddhism. Until recently, however, the Vietnamese have moved away from their traditional texts[22] and literature and, unlike all other countries who follow the Sino lunar calendar, include the Cat instead of the Rabbit as a zodiac animal. The most common explanation for this would be that cats are worshipped by farmers in East Asia, who believe that cats' luck and prosperity protects their crops.[23] Another popular cultural reason is that the ancient word for rabbit (Mao) sounds like cat (Meo).[24]
The zodiac is also widely used in commercial culture, for example, in the Chinese New Year market, various products related to the zodiac, such as crafts, toys, books, accessories, paintings and so on are popular.
The Chinese zodiac is also used in some other Asian countries that have been under the cultural influence of China. However, some of the animals in the zodiac may differ by country.
The Korean zodiac includes the Sheep (yang) instead of the Goat (which would be yeomso), although the Chinese source of the loanword yang may refer to any goat-antelope.[citation needed]
The Japanese zodiac includes the Sheep (hitsuji) instead of the Goat (which would be yagi), and the Wild boar (inoshishi, i) instead of the Pig (buta).[25] Since 1873, the Japanese have celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian calendar.[citation needed]
The Vietnamese zodiac varies from the Chinese zodiac with the second animal being the Water Buffalo instead of the Ox, and the fourth animal being the Cat instead of the Rabbit.[citation needed]
The Cambodian zodiac is exactly identical to that of the Chinese although the dragon is interchangeable with the Neak (nāga) Cambodian sea snake.[26] Sheep and Goat are interchangeable as well. The Cambodian New Year is celebrated in April, rather than in January or February as it is in China and most countries.[27][28]
The Cham zodiac uses the same order as the Chinese zodiac, but replaces the Monkey with the turtle (known locally as kra).
Similarly the Malay zodiac is identical to the Chinese but replaces the Rabbit with the mousedeer (pelanduk) and the Pig with the tortoise (kura or kura-kura).[29] The Dragon (Loong) is normally equated with the nāga but it is sometimes called Big Snake (ular besar) while the Snake sign is called Second Snake (ular sani). This is also recorded in a 19th-century manuscript compiled by John Leyden.[30]
The Thai zodiac includes a nāga in place of the Dragon[31] and begins, not at the Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of the fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar, or during the SongkranNew Year festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.[32] Historically, Lan Na (Kingdom around Northern Thailand) also replaces pig with elephant. While modern Thai have returned to pig, its name is still กุน (gu̜n), retaining the actual word for elephant in the zodiac.[33]
The Gurung zodiac in Nepal includes a Cow instead of an Ox, a Cat instead of Rabbit, an Eagle instead of a Dragon (Loong), a Bird instead of a Rooster, and a Deer instead of a Pig.[citation needed]
The Bulgar calendar used from the 2nd century[34] and that has been only partially reconstructed uses a similar sixty-year cycle of twelve animal-named years groups.[35]
The Volga Bulgars, Kazars and other Turkic peoples replaced some animals by local fauna: Leopard (instead of Tiger), Fish or Crocodile (instead of Dragon/Loong), Hedgehog (instead of Monkey), Elephant (instead of Pig), and Camel (instead of Rat/Mouse).[37][38]
In the Persian version of the Eastern zodiac brought by Mongols during the Middle Ages, the Chinese word lóng and Mongol word lū (Dragon) was translated as nahang meaning "water beast", and may refer to any dangerous aquatic animal both mythical and real (crocodiles, hippos, sharks, sea serpents, etc.). In the 20th century the term nahang is used almost exclusively as meaning Whale, thus switching the Loong for the Whale in the Persian variant.[39][40]
In the traditional Kazakh version of the twelve-year animal cycle (Kazakh: мүшел, müşel), the Dragon is replaced by a snail (Kazakh: ұлу, ulw), and the Tiger appears as a leopard (Kazakh: барыс, barıs).[41]
In the Kyrgyz version of the Chinese zodiac (Kyrgyz: мүчөл, müçöl) the words for the Dragon (Kyrgyz: улуу, uluu), Monkey (Kyrgyz: мечин, meçin) and Tiger (Kyrgyz: барс, bars) are only found in Chinese zodiac names, other animal names include Mouse, Cow, Rabbit, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Chicken, Dog and Wild boar.[42]
Due to confusion with synonyms during translation, some of the animals depicted by the English words did not exist in ancient China.[citation needed] For example:
The term 鼠Rat can be translated as Mouse, as there are no distinctive words for the two genera in Chinese. However, Rat is the most commonly used one among all the synonyms.[citation needed]
The term 牛Ox, a castrated Bull, can be translated interchangeably with other terms related to Cattle (male Bull, female Cow) and Buffalo. However, Ox is the most commonly used one among all the synonyms.[citation needed]
The term 卯Rabbit can be translated as Hare, as 卯 (and 兔) do not distinguish between the two genera of leporids. As hares are native to China and most of Asia and rabbits are not, this would be more accurate. However, in colloquial English Rabbit can encompass hares as well.
The term 蛇Snake can be translated as Serpent, which refers to a large species of snake and has the same behavior, although this term is rarely used.
The term 羊Goat can be translated as Sheep and Ram, a male Sheep. However, Goat is the most commonly used one among all the synonyms.[citation needed]
The term 雞Rooster can be translated interchangeably with Chicken, as well as the female Hen. However, Rooster is the most commonly used one among all the synonyms in English-speaking countries.[citation needed]
Gallery
A chart indicating good and bad bloodletting days and when to guard against demons. Detail: The chart contains a sme ba (9 figures symbolizing the elements in geomancy) in the center with the Chinesebagua (eight trigrams) surrounded by twelve animals of months and years.
Chinese astrology is based on traditional Chinese astronomy and the Chinese calendar. Chinese astrology flourished during the Han dynasty.
The Pig or sometimes translated as the Boar is the twelfth of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in Chinese zodiac, in relation to the Chinese calendar and system of horology, and paralleling the system of ten Heavenly Stems and twelve Earthly Branches. Although the term "zodiac" is used in the phrase "Chinese zodiac", there is a major difference between the Chinese usage and Western astrology: the zodiacal animals do not relate to the zodiac as the area of the sky that extends approximately 8° north or south of the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, the Moon, and visible planets across the celestial sphere's constellations, over the course of the year.
The rabbit is the fourth in the twelve-year periodic sequence (cycle) of animals that appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Rabbit is associated with the Earthly Branch symbol 卯. the element Wood in Wuxing theory and within Traditional Chinese medicine the Liver Yin and the emotions and virtues of kindness and hope.
The dragon is the fifth of the 12-year cycle of animals that appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Dragon is associated with the Earthly Branch symbol 辰.
The Tiger is the third of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Tiger is associated with the Earthly Branch symbol 寅.
The snake is the sixth of the twelve-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Snake is associated with the Earthly Branch symbol 巳.
The Goat is the eighth of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. This zodiacal sign is often referred to as the "Ram" or "Sheep" sign, since the Chinese word yáng is more accurately translated as Caprinae, a taxonomic subfamily that includes both goats and sheep, but contrasts with other animal subfamily types such as Bovinae, Antilopinae, and other taxonomic considerations which may be encountered in the case of the larger family of Bovidae in Chinese mythology, which also includes the Ox (zodiac). The Year of the Goat is associated with the 8th Earthly Branch symbol, 未 (wèi).
The Ox is the second of the 12-year periodic sequence (cycle) of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar, and also appears in related calendar systems. The Chinese term translated here as ox is in Chinese niú , a word generally referring to cows, bulls, or neutered types of the bovine family, such as common cattle or water buffalo. The zodiacal ox may be construed as male, female, neutered, intersex, and either singular or plural. The Year of the Ox is also denoted by the Earthly Branch symbol chǒu. The term "zodiac" ultimately derives from an Ancient Greek term referring to a "circle of little animals". There are also a yearly month of the ox and a daily hour of the ox. Years of the oxen (cows) are cyclically differentiated by correlation to the Heavenly Stems cycle, resulting in a repeating cycle of five years of the ox/cow, each ox/cow year also being associated with one of the Chinese wǔxíng, also known as the "five elements", or "phases": the "Five Phases" being Fire, Water, Wood, Metal, and Earth. The Year of the Ox follows after the Year of the Rat which happened in 2020 and is then followed by the Year of the Tiger, which happened in 2022.
The Rat or Mouse is the first of the repeating 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac, constituting part of the Chinese calendar system. The Year of the Rat in standard Chinese is Chinese: 鼠年; pinyin: shǔnián. The rat is associated with the first branch of the Earthly Branch symbol 子 (zǐ), which starts a repeating cycle of twelve years. The Chinese word shǔ refers to various small rodents (Muroidea), such as rats and mice. The term "zodiac" ultimately derives from an Ancient Greek term referring to a "circle of little animals". There are also a yearly month of the rat and a daily hour of the rat. Years of the rat are cyclically differentiated by correlation to the Heavenly Stems cycle, resulting in a repeating cycle of five years of the rat, each rat year also being associated with one of the Chinese wu xing, also known as the "five elements", or "phases": the "Five Phases" being Fire, Water, Wood, Metal, and Earth.
The Vietnamese zodiac is the traditional Vietnamese classification scheme based on the lunar calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating 12-year cycle. The Viet lunar calendar is divided into 60-year cycles known as hồi. Each of these consists of five 12-year animal cycles.
In Western astrology, astrological signs are the twelve 30-degree sectors that make up Earth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as the First Point of Aries, which is the vernal equinox. The astrological signs are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces. The Western zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was later influenced by the Hellenistic culture. Each sign was named after a constellation the sun annually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popular sun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with the constellations they were named after by axial precession of the Earth while Hindu astrology measurements correct for this shifting. Astrology was developed in Chinese and Tibetan cultures as well but these astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky.
The Tibetan calendar, or Tibetan lunar calendar, is a lunisolar calendar, that is, the Tibetan year is composed of either 12 or 13 lunar months, each beginning and ending with a new moon. A thirteenth month is added every two or three years, so that an average Tibetan year is equal to the solar year. The Phukpa calendar is the main Tibetan calendar, and the Karma Kagyu's Tsurluk calendar is also in current use.
Tai Sui is a Chinese name for stars directly opposite the planet Jupiter in its roughly 12-year orbital cycle. Personified as deities, they are important features of Chinese astrology, Feng Shui, Taoism, and to a lesser extent Chinese Buddhism.
In 1981, China began minting coins to commemorate the Chinese New Year. The Chinese lunar series consist of gold, silver, and platinum coins in a variety of sizes, denominations, and shapes. The reverse of each coin depicts the zodiac animal for the corresponding year of issue, while the obverse features an historical building or other notable cultural image.
The Cat is the 4th animal symbol in the 12-year cycle of the Vietnamese zodiac, and Gurung zodiac, taking place of the Rabbit in the Chinese zodiac. As such, the traits associated with the Rabbit are attributed to the Cat. Cats are in conflict with the Rat.
The Rooster is the tenth of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Rooster is represented by the Earthly Branch symbol 酉.
Circle of Animals/Zodiac Heads is an artwork by Chinese contemporary artist and political commentator, Ai Weiwei. The work comes in a small (gold) and large (bronze) version.
Khorol or Khorlo is a multi-trick tile-based game played in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Tuva, usually on Lunar New Year's. It is played between two and eight players with four being the most common. The game appeared during Manchu rule (1645-1912). It is similar to the game of Daaluu (Даалуу) played with a double set of Chinese dominoes.
The Lunar or Shēngxiào (生肖) coin series is a collection of British coins issued by the Royal Mint featuring the Chinese zodiac in celebration of Chinese New Year. First issued in 2014, the series has been minted in varying denominations of silver and gold as both bullion and proof.
Kotobuki is a yōkai in Japanese mythology. The Kotobuki is a Japanese Chimera that has the parts of the creatures of the animals on the Chinese zodiac where it sports the head of a rat, the ears of a rabbit, the horns of an ox, the comb of a rooster, the beard of a goat, the neck of a dragon, the mane of a horse, the shoulders of a tiger, the arms of a monkey, the back of a boar, the hind legs of a dog, and the tail of a snake.
↑ Theodora Lau, The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes, pp. 2–8, 30–35, 60–64, 88–94, 118–124, 148–153, 178–184, 208–213, 238–244, 270–278, 306–312, 338–344, Souvenir Press, New York, 2005
↑ Jan Van Alphen, Anthony Aris Oriental Medicine: An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing 1995 - Page 211 "Its influence on the cultural and medical traditions of Vietnam can be clearly seen in, for example, the classical distinction between Thuoc nam, 'Southern medicine', and Thuoc bac, 'Northern or Chinese Medicine'. Both were practised and ..."
↑ Ronnberg, Ami; Martín, Kathleen Rock, eds. (2010). The book of symbols: archetypal reflections in word and image. Köln: Taschen. p.300. ISBN978-3-8365-1448-4.
↑ Davletshin1, Gamirzan M. (2015). "The Calendar and the Time Account of the Turko-Tatars". Journal of Sustainable Development. 8 (5).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ Dani, A. H.; Mohen, J.-P. History of Humanity. Vol.II: From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century B.C. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
↑ Rasulid Hexaglot. P. B. Golden, ed., The King’s Dictionary: The Rasūlid Hexaglot – Fourteenth Century Vocabularies in Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Greek, Armenian and Mongol, tr. T. Halasi-Kun, P. B. Golden, L. Ligeti, and E. Schütz, HO VIII/4, Leiden, 2000.
↑ Jan Gyllenbok, Encyclopaedia of Historical Metrology, Weights, and Measures, Volume 1, 2018, p. 244.
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