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East Asian literature is the diverse writings from the East Asian nations, China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia and Taiwan. Literature from this area emerges as a distinct and unique field of prose and poetry that embodies the cultural, social and political factors of each nation. Prose within East Asian countries reflects the rich cultural heritage from which specificities of language, form and style shape writings. Similarly, East Asian poetry exemplifies how the diverse culture and distinct environments influence East Asian Literature. Reflected through the poetic forms, images and language employed in writings. The development of East Asian literature has been subjugated to both local and international influences. The presence of Western literature and the transnational exchange reflects an interrelationship in which East Asian Literature has benefited from the communication of ideas and perspectives as well as contributed to broader literature movements.
East Asian literature includes:
East Asian prose encapsulates a rich cultural heritage emerging from specific historical experiences, reflecting a diverse development of communication, identification and education. Prose within East Asia also plays a supporting role in the dissemination of certain political, religious and social agendas.
Early East Asian literature was deeply influenced by political and social agendas during a period of isolationism. The minimal contact between China, Japan and Korea during the nineteenth century reflects the common trend of isolationism as foreign policy. [1] However, territorial conflicts which culminated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) had an impactful role in the development of East Asian prose. This is confirmed by the increased presence of nationalist and patriotic themes. For example, Japanese poets such as Yosano Hiroshi and Masaoka Shiki called for existing traditional forms of prose to be imbued with notions of patriotism and martial bravery, whereas in China, a “poetry revolution” was instituted in the late Qing reform movement, where literature contained strong undertones of nationalistic ideals and qualities. [2]
The infusion of political sentiment in East Asian prose is made clear in the depiction of the nation-state in China. Incorporating the predominant spiritual teachings of Confucius, literature often depicted Chinese involvement as harmonious, romanticising any expansionist and aggressive intentions. [3] It echoes the notion of Chinese exceptionalism, demonstrating how Chinese prose often reflects a specific historical milieu.
Prose with East Asia also played a fundamental role in the construction and reinforcement of national identity. This is elucidated in Mongolian literature, particularly the prose of the early 20th century. Following the 1921 Mongolian Revolution, which was backed by the Soviet Army, Mongolian writers used prose to frame the ideology of socialism and its practice for those Mongolians who had little understanding of what it could offer them. [4]
Literature became a tool to inculcate the public on aspects of a new socialist program that embodied the dissemination of writings on education, healthcare and religious beliefs in the new Mongolian state. The complex contextual influences shaped how Mongolian writers sought to extract revolutionary sentiment from the tropes and genres of folk literature. [4] Consequently, there was a desire by writers to enhance and promote a new revolutionary society, embracing their connection to their homeland and rich cultural ancestry. The rich nomadic culture within Mongolia also informed their literature, with prose becoming a manifestation of the deep-rooted connections and intimacy to the land, wildlife and environment. It is through these literary works that Mongolian writers reaffirm traditional and cultural knowledge to be passed down. For example, Indigenous collections such as the Üliger-ün Dalai (The Sea of Stories). [4]
East Asian poetry is a rich literary genre that contains unique linguistic forms, styles, and aesthetics. Poetry has been significant in the development of literary topics and expressions, often inspiring new forms and images. East Asian poetry explores a diverse collection of themes, motifs and archetypes that are critical to a nuanced understanding of literary styles. The symbolism within East Asian poetry often encapsulates the localised cultural experiences and philosophical ponderings of their respective state. Lee states that some preferred subjects within East Asian poetry are derived from universal and timeless themes. [5]
The most common example is the symbolism and unique language of flora and fauna depictions. Within East Asian poetry, the strong penchant to employ visceral imagery that heavily incorporates naturalistic themes reflects a shared literary style which can be seen in Chinese poetry, Japanese imperial anthologies and Korean sijo poetry. [5] For example, references regarding a Peach Blossom Spring, the chrysanthemum, and the five willows, influenced by T'ao Ch'ien's poetry are symbolic and representative of presenting an ideal place remote in time or space. [5]
Within Chinese poetry, natural imagery has remained a hallmark of writings and a key literary technique employed since ancient times, the oldest preserved anthology of “songs” (shi 詩), The Book of Songs (c. 1000–600 BCE), an example of this. [6] The imagery within Chinese poetry was used as figurative language, to deepen the meaning imbued in poetry, challenging the use of conventional images, and offering a more niche and creative interpretation. This created the scope for imaginative retelling and mythical imaging which reflected the oral cultural storytelling of the time. [6] The images of Yin, representing “maleness” and “strength” and Yang representing “femaleness” and “softness” were frequently used as motifs within Chinese poetry. The recurring use of dichotomies reflects the spiritual teaching of Taoism, Chinese poetry often attributed gendered descriptions and metaphorical language to demark such differences. Themes in poetry were also gender marked through these cultural stereotypes, with themes of emotions, love and eroticism associated with femininity, compared with their male counterparts of philosophy, politics and warfare – representing masculine aesthetics. [6]
The disparities in East Asian countries’ institutions, cultural beliefs, and literary tastes, can be signalled within their poetry. For example, in Chinese and Korean poetry, themes of friendships, parting and retirement are preferred and more frequent written, whereas, within Japanese poetry, there is a greater tendency and interest to explore concepts of the seasons and love. [5]
The Western world has played a pivotal role in the changing landscape of East Asian literature. The cultural, political and social exposure had a significant impact on the East Asian region which was translated into a shift in literature and cultural developments. One prominent example is the assimilation and adaption of Western literary conventions and techniques into Asian literature. [7] In China, the growth of foreign literature was first introduced and circulated through journals and magazines. [8] Western literature was revised and adapted to conform to the ethical beliefs of Confucianism, reflecting socio-political factors. For example, translator Lin Shu translated Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin to Black Slave's Cry to Heaven, where he “connects the brutality against black slaves to contemporary US discrimination against Chinese immigrants and the fate of China in the face of repeated military and diplomatic humiliations by Western powers” (Liu, 2007, p.415). [9] Shu's use of the classical styles of chuanqi (Tang dynasty) and ci (Song dynasty), paired with similar structuring principles and techniques between foreign and Chinese literature pieces was driven by an agenda to create an optimistic outlook on foreign literature. [8] Similarly, this influence was seen present in other forms of literature, namely poetry, in the rendition and dramatization of William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice renamed Contract of Flesh by Zheng Zhengqiu. [9]
Japan's rise as a regional power demonstrated in its victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), colonizing Taiwan, and annexing Korea in 1910, was impactful on literary developments. Simultaneously, China's military and territorial losses to both Western powers and Japan were also reflected in their respective literature and adaptions. For example, forms of Japanese and Chinese theatre (shinpa and wenmingxi) adaptions both actively sought to reflect these geopolitical concerns and dynamics, using original creations and adaptations from European poetry and plays. [9] For example, William Shakespeare's Othello was adapted to reflect the tumultuous climate on both a national and international scale. [9] Interestingly, the systemic appropriation of Western texts also gave rise to a fascist, pro-imperialist, and belligerently anti-Western discourse throughout China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. [7]
Cross-cultural exchange and social-political factors have also shaped regional exchange; thus, altering the development of literature in other East Asian nations. The constant flow of people, ideas and cultural products between East Asian nations, signals a broader exchange network which influenced the development of literature. Within East Asia, foreign oppression in China paired with Japan's emergence as a superpower towards the end of the 19th century radically transformed the contact and interaction among East Asian peoples and their literature. [10]
Additionally, the cross-cultural exchange gave rise to literacy inspiration. For example, Chinese vernacular novels, such as The Water Margin, The Story of the Stone, and Monkey, inspired the new genre in Japan called, “Yomihon”; historical romances written in prose. [8] Moreover, some literary works became mouthpieces for nationalistic perspectives of their critical commentary on neighbouring cultural goods. For example, some Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese writers both affirmed and denied Japanese imperial cultural authority through the incorporation of their literary works; which both contributed to the survival of these texts and simultaneously resisted the cultural Japanese discourse through rigorous criticism. [10]
This is further explored through the exchanges of Japanese and Korean literary works in the early 20th century. Nakano Shigeharu was a leading poet and organiser of Japan's prewar proletarian literary movement. Within his poem “Ame no furu Shinagawa eki” (Shinagawa Station in the Rain, May 1929) which is riddled with censorship marks, he writes of the eventual glorious return to Japan of Korean revolutionaries who were deported on the enthronement of the Sho ̄wa emperor. [10] The anti-imperial sentiment was quickly and anonymously translated into Korean as “Pi nal-i nu ̆n P’umch’o ̆n-yo ̆k”, and creative liberties were taken by leading Korean revolutionary poet Im Hwa (1908–53) in “Usan pat-u ̆ n Yok’ohama u ̆ i pudu” (Yokohama Pier under the Umbrella, August 1929) which provided potential writings for the censored lines. [10] “Pi nal-i nu ̆n P’umch’o ̆n-yo ̆k” translates the Japanese poem's censorship marks into lines that unflatteringly corporealize the emperor, undermining the Japanese Imperial authority, mocking its censorship and calling for aggressive violence on the Japanese emperor. [10] Hence, it Is evident that through that literature was harnessed as a tool to appeal to nationalistic and patriotist agendas.
This was also similar in China, where Chinese writers were motivated to persevere national dignity, while simultaneously criticising Japanese aggression and expansion. For example, Japanese writer Ishikawa Tatsuzō’s banned novella Ikiteiru heitai (March 1998) depicts the brutality of Chinese soldiers through slaughtering, looting, raping and murdering, revealing Japanese anxieties about the war and its effects on individuals and communities. [10] The text is transformed through the translation by a Chinese writer, Bai Mu which alters the text to Weisi de bing (Soldiers Not Yet Deceased). This distortion of Ishikawa's work tells a completely different narrative of Japanese brutality while omitting any negative depiction of Chinese atrocities committed. [10] Thus, East Asian literature was deeply influenced by geopolitical concerns and neighbouring tensions as the constant use of transformational intertextuality in East Asian literature to promote certain narratives.
Neighbouring East Asian nations also provided creative inspiration as seen by the role of Chinese literature in the development of Mongolian literature. This is seen through translations of Chinese novels, which gave rise to the development of a distinct Mongolian literary style. This influence is prevalent in the first Mongolian novels, where Mongolian authors adopted Chinese literary techniques and creative elements, for example, through plots, the manner of character development and description, and the organisation of the narrative and narrative style. [11] Chinese novels, hence, became a basis for the creation in the mid-nineteenth century of the first Mongolian novels. For example, within The Blue Chronicle by Koke Sudar, there are sections inspired by corresponding passages from Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms , or Cao Xuejin's Dream of the Red Chamber. [11]
Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese, is the language of the classic literature from the end of the Spring and Autumn period through to either the start of the Qin dynasty or the end of the Han dynasty, a written form of Old Chinese. Classical Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese that evolved from the classical language, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese. Literary Chinese was used for almost all formal writing in China until the early 20th century, and also, during various periods, in Japan, Ryukyu, Korea and Vietnam. Among Chinese speakers, Literary Chinese has been largely replaced by written vernacular Chinese, a style of writing that is similar to modern spoken Mandarin Chinese, while speakers of non-Chinese languages have largely abandoned Literary Chinese in favor of their respective local vernaculars. Although languages have evolved in unique, different directions from the base of Literary Chinese, many cognates can be still found between these languages that have historically written in Classical Chinese.
The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry that attempt to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/listener/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings constitute literature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above.
The history of the Chinese literature, some scholars prefer the term "Sinophone literature", extends thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature vernacular fiction novels that arose during the Ming dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese. The introduction of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang dynasty (618–907) and the invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song dynasty (960–1279) rapidly spread written knowledge throughout China. In more modern times, the author Lu Xun (1881–1936) is considered an influential voice of baihua literature in China.
Japanese literature throughout most of its history has been influenced by cultural contact with neighboring Asian literatures, most notably China and its literature. Early texts were often written in pure Classical Chinese or lit. 'Chinese writing', a Chinese-Japanese creole language. Indian literature also had an influence through the spread of Buddhism in Japan.
Han Yu, courtesy name Tuizhi, and commonly known by his posthumous name Han Wengong (韓文公), was an essayist, Confucian scholar, poet, and government official during the Tang dynasty who significantly influenced the development of Neo-Confucianism. Described as "comparable in stature to Dante, Shakespeare or Goethe" for his influence on the Chinese literary tradition, Han Yu stood for strong central authority in politics and orthodoxy in cultural matters.
Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language and is one of the world's oldest literatures. It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and Turkey, regions of Central Asia, South Asia and the Balkans where the Persian language has historically been either the native or official language. For example, Rumi, one of the best-loved Persian poets, born in Balkh or Wakhsh, wrote in Persian and lived in Konya, at that time the capital of the Seljuks in Anatolia. The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from Iran, Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan, the wider Caucasus, Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Tajikistan and other parts of Central Asia, as well as the Balkans. Not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by ethnic Persians or Iranians in other languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, Indic and Slavic poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of Persianate cultures.
Japanese poetry is poetry typical of Japan, or written, spoken, or chanted in the Japanese language, which includes Old Japanese, Early Middle Japanese, Late Middle Japanese, and Modern Japanese, as well as poetry in Japan which was written in the Chinese language or ryūka from the Okinawa Islands: it is possible to make a more accurate distinction between Japanese poetry written in Japan or by Japanese people in other languages versus that written in the Japanese language by speaking of Japanese-language poetry. Much of the literary record of Japanese poetry begins when Japanese poets encountered Chinese poetry during the Tang dynasty. Under the influence of the Chinese poets of this era Japanese began to compose poetry in Chinese kanshi); and, as part of this tradition, poetry in Japan tended to be intimately associated with pictorial painting, partly because of the influence of Chinese arts, and the tradition of the use of ink and brush for both writing and drawing. It took several hundred years to digest the foreign impact and make it an integral part of Japanese culture and to merge this kanshi poetry into a Japanese language literary tradition, and then later to develop the diversity of unique poetic forms of native poetry, such as waka, haikai, and other more Japanese poetic specialties. For example, in the Tale of Genji both kanshi and waka are frequently mentioned. The history of Japanese poetry goes from an early semi-historical/mythological phase, through the early Old Japanese literature inclusions, just before the Nara period, the Nara period itself, the Heian period, the Kamakura period, and so on, up through the poetically important Edo period and modern times; however, the history of poetry often is different from socio-political history.
Classic Chinese Novels are the best-known novels of pre-modern Chinese literature. These are among the world's longest and oldest novels. They represented a new complexity in structure and sophistication in language that helped to establish the novel as a respected form among later popular audiences and sophisticated critics.
The culture of Asia encompasses the collective and diverse customs and traditions of art, architecture, music, literature, lifestyle, philosophy, politics and religion that have been practiced and maintained by the numerous ethnic groups of the continent of Asia since prehistory. Identification of a specific culture of Asia or universal elements among the colossal diversity that has emanated from multiple cultural spheres and three of the four ancient River valley civilizations is complicated. However, the continent is commonly divided into six geographic sub-regions, that are characterized by perceivable commonalities, like culture, religion, language and relative ethnic homogeneity. These regions are Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia.
Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language and sometimes in Classical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was written in Hanja. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, the world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script.
Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent western authors, poets, and pieces of literature.
East Asian studies is a distinct multidisciplinary field of scholarly enquiry and education that promotes a broad humanistic understanding of East Asia past and present. The field includes the study of the region's culture, written language, history and political institutions. East Asian Studies is located within the broader field of Asian studies and is also interdisciplinary in character, incorporating elements of the social sciences and humanities, among others. The field encourages scholars from diverse disciplines to exchanges ideas on scholarship as it relates to the East Asian experience and the experience of East Asia in the world. In addition, the field encourages scholars to educate others to have a deeper understanding of and appreciation and respect for, all that is East Asia and, therefore, to promote peaceful human integration worldwide.
The Sinosphere, also known as the East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that historically were heavily influenced by Chinese culture, norms and traditions. According to academic consensus, the Sinosphere comprises four entities: Greater China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Other definitions may include Mongolia and Singapore, largely due to limited historical Chinese influences or increasing modern-day Chinese diaspora. The Sinosphere is not to be confused with Sinophone, which indicates countries where a Chinese-speaking population is dominant.
Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, poetry, and including both print and digital writing. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, also known as orature much of which has been transcribed. Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.
East Asia is the easternmost region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau, two small coastal quasi-dependent territories located in the south of China, are officially highly autonomous but are under Chinese sovereignty. Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau are some of the world's largest and most prosperous economies. East Asia borders Siberia and the Russian Far East to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To the east is the Pacific Ocean and to the southeast is Micronesia.
Hualing Nieh Engle, née Nieh Hua-ling, is a Chinese novelist, fiction writer, and poet. She is a professor emerita at the University of Iowa.
Mongolian literature is literature written in Mongolia and/or in the Mongolian language. It was greatly influenced by and evolved from its nomadic oral storytelling traditions, and it originated in the 13th century. The "three peaks" of Mongol literature, The Secret History of the Mongols, Epic of King Gesar and Epic of Jangar, all reflect the age-long tradition of heroic epics on the Eurasian Steppe. Mongol literature has also been a reflection of the society of the given time, its level of political, economic and social development as well as leading intellectual trends.
Modern Chinese poetry, including New poetry, refers to post Qing dynasty Chinese poetry, including the modern vernacular (baihua) style of poetry increasingly common with the New Culture and 4 May 1919 movements, with the development of experimental styles such as "free verse" ; but, also including twentieth and twenty-first century continuations or revivals of Classical Chinese poetry forms. Some modern Chinese poetry represents major new and modern developments in the poetry of one of the world's larger areas, as well as other important areas sharing this linguistic affinity. One of the first poets and theorist in the modern Chinese poetry mode was Hu Shih (1891–1962).
Poedjangga Baroe was an Indonesian avant-garde literary magazine published from July 1933 to February 1942. It was founded by Armijn Pane, Amir Hamzah, and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana.
The instance that marked the shift in the whole of Arabic literature towards modern Arabic literature can be attributed to the Arab World-West contact during the 19th and early 20th century. This contact resulted in the gradual replacement of Classical Arabic forms with Western ones. Genres like plays, novels, and short stories were coming to the fore. Although the exact date in which this reformation in literary production occurred is unknown, the rise of modern Arabic literature was "inseparable" from the Nahda, also referred to as the Arab Renaissance.
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